most important figures in the development of Mahyna Buddhism in India.
Though he is particularly admired by later Buddhists as co-founder of
the Yogcra school along with his half brother Asanga, his pre-Yogcra
works, such as the Abhidharmakosha and his auto-commentary
(Abhidharmakoshabhshya) on it, are considered masterpieces. He wrote
commentaries on many stras, works on logic, devotional poetry, works
on Abhidharma classifications, as well as original and innovative
philosophical treatises. Some of his writings have survived in their
original Sanskrit form, but many others, particularly his
commentaries, are extant only in their Chinese or Tibetan
translations. Vasubandhu was a many-sided thinker, and his personality
as it emerges from his works and his biographies shows him as a man
who was not only a great genius and a philosopher, but also a human
being who was filled with great compassion.
1. Sources on the Biography of Vasubandhu
The most important and the only complete account of the life of
Vasubandhu entitled Posou pandoufa shijuan (Biography of Master
Vasubandhu) was compiled into Chinese by Paramartha (499-569 CE), one
of the chief exponents of Yogacara doctrine in China. It is preserved
in the Chinese Tripitaka and its English translation was published by
J. Takakusu in T'oung Pao (1904: 269-296). Apart from this account,
the Xiyuji of Xuanzang (600-664 CE) also provides important
information about the life of Vasubandhu. Though Paramartha and
Xuanzang are the two most credible authorities for Vasubandhu's life,
yet serious discrepancies exist between their accounts. Paramartha's
account not only contains legendary or even mythical elements, but the
time sequence of events is also ambiguous and differs greatly in
places from the account of Xuanzang's the Xiyuji. The Tibetan
historians, Taranatha and Bu-ston, also give some important
information on Vasubandhu's life, but their account further disagrees
with Paramartha and Xuanzang in terms of certain names and events
associated with the life of Vasubandhu. Scholars once suspected that
more than one person bore the name Vasubandhu in the history of Indian
Buddhism, although recent studies have eliminated this hypothesis.
2. Early Life of Vasubandhu
He was born at Purusapura (identified with modern Peshawar, capital of
North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan) in the state of Gandhara.
Gandhara is best known today as one of the earliest regions to develop
a distinctive form of Buddhist art noted for its Hellenistic
influence. According to Taranatha, Vasubandhu was born one year after
his older brother Asanga became a Buddhist monk. His father was a
brahmanaof the Kaushika gotra. According to Posou pandou fashi zhuan
his mother's name was Virinci. But Bu-ston and Taranatha mention the
name of the mother of Asanga and Vasubandhu as Prasannashila.
According to these two Tibetan historians, Asanga and Vasubandhu were
half-brothers; Asanga's father being a kshatriya, and Vasubandhu's a
brahmana. Vasubandhu also had a younger brother called Virincivatsa.
Vasubandhu's father was a court priest, and according to Taranatha was
an authority on the Vedas. In all probability, he officiated at the
court of the Shaka princes of the Shilada clan, who at that time ruled
from Purusapura. During the formative years of his life, Vasubandhu
may have been introduced by his father not only to the Brahmanical
tradition but also to the postulates of classical Nyaya and
Vaisheshika, both of which had influence on his logical thought.
As a young student, he amazed his teachers with his brilliance and
ready wit. According to Paramartha, Vasubandhu's teacher was called
Buddhamitra. The Xiyuji, however, never mentions Buddhamitra and names
Manoratha as the teacher of Vasubandhu. At Vasubandhu's time the
dominant Buddhist school in Gandhara was the Vaibhashika (also called
Sarvastivada). Vasubandhu entered the Sarvastivada order, and studied
primarily the scholastic system of the Vaibhashikas. Initially, he was
quite impressed with the Mahavibhasha. In time, however, Vasubandhu
began to have grave doubts about the validity and relevance of
Vaibhashika metaphysics. At this time, perhaps through the brilliant
teacher Manoratha, he came into contact with the theories of the
Sautrantikas, the group of Buddhists who wished to reject everything
that was not the express word of the Buddha, and who held the
elaborate constructions of the Vibhasha up to ridicule. That there was
a strong Sautrantika tradition in Purusapura is likely in view of the
fact that it was the birthplace of that maverick philosopher of the
second century, Dharmatrata. In fact, the most orthodox Vaibhashika
seat of learning was not in Gandhara, but in Kashmir, whose masters
looked down upon the Gandharans as quasi-heretics. Therefore,
according to Xuanzang's pupil Pu Kuang, Vasubandhu decided to go to
Kashmir disguised as a lunatic to investigate the Vaibhashika
teachings more deeply. Vasubandhu studied in Kashmir with different
teachers for four years and then came back to Purusapura.
After having returned to his native place, Vasubandhu began to prepare
for an enormous project that had been in his mind for some time. At
this time he was unattached to any particular order, and lived in a
small private house in the center of Purusapura. Vasubandhu supported
himself by lecturing on Buddhism before the general public, which
presumably remunerated him with gifts. According to tradition, during
the day he would lecture on Vaibhashika doctrine and in the evening
distill the day's lectures into a verse. When collected together the
six hundred plus verses (karikas) gave a thorough summary of the
entire system. He entitled this work the Abhidharmakosha (Treasury of
Abhidharma). According to Paramartha, Vasubandhu composed the
Abhidharmakosha at Ayodhya, but according to Xuanzang, it was composed
in the suburbs of Purusapura. In the Abhidharmakosha Vasubandhu
analyzed and catalogued seventy-five dharmas, the basic factors of
experience, for the purposes of attaining Bodhi. He divided them into
various categories consisting of eleven types of rupani i.e.,
'material forms' (the five sense organs, their corresponding objects,
and avijnapti-rupa i.e., 'gesture unrevealing of intent'); citta
(mind); ten types of mahaabhumika i.e., 'major groundings' (volition,
desire, mindfulness, attention etc.); ten types of kushala-mahabhumika
i.e., 'advantageous major groundings' (faith, vigor, equanimity,
ahimsa, serenity etc.); six types of klesha-mahabhumika i.e., 'mental
disturbance major groundings' (confusion, carelessness, restlessness
etc.); two types of akushala mahabhumika i.e., 'nonadvantageous major
groundings (shamelessness and non-embarrassment); ten types of
paritta-klesha-mahabhumika i.e., 'secondary mental disturbance major
groundings' (anger, enmity, envy, conceit etc.); eight types of
aniyata-mahabhumika i.e., 'indeterminate major groundings' (remorse,
arrigance, aversion, doubt, torpor etc.); fourteen types of
citta-viprayukta-samskara-dharmah i.e. 'embodied-conditioning
disassociated from mind' (life-force, birth, decay, impermanence
etc.); and three types of asamskrita-dharmah i.e., 'unconditioned
dharmas (spatiality, cessation through understanding, and cessation
without understanding). Not only were the definitions and
interrelations of these seventy-five dharmas analyzed in the
Abhidharmakosha, but their karmic qualities also examined. Besides,
Vasubandhu also elaborated upon causal theories, cosmology, practices
of meditation, theories of perception, karma, rebirth, and the
characteristics of an Enlightened Being in this text.
As the Abhidharmakosha was an eloquent summary of the purport of the
Mahavibhasha, the Kashmiri Sarvastivadins are reported to have
rejoiced to see in it all their doctrines so well propounded.
Accordingly, they requested Vasubandhu to write a prose commentary
(bhashya) on it. However, it seems that after having written the
Abhidharmakosha, Vasubandhu began to have second thoughts about the
Vaibhashika teachings. As a consequence, it is said, Vasubandhu
prepared the Abhidharmakoshabhashya. But as it contained a
thoroughgoing critique of Vaibhashika dogmatics from a Sautrantika
viewpoint, the Kashmiri Sarvastivadins soon realized, to their great
disappointment, that the Abhidharmakoshabhashya in fact refuted many
Sarvastivada theories and upheld the doctrines of the Sautrantika
school. One major point that created bad blood between the
Vaibhashikas and the Sautrantikas was concerning the status and nature
of the dharmas. The Vaibhashikas held that the dharmas exist in the
past and future as well as the present. On the other hand, the
Sautrantikas held the view that they are discrete, particular moments
only existing at the present moment in which they discharge causal
efficacy. The Vaibhashikas wrote several treatises attempting to
refute Vasubandhu's critiques.
3. Conversion to Mahayana
In the years directly following the composition of the
Abhidharmakoshabhashya, Vasubandhu seems to have spent much time in
travelling from place to place. Finally, after having spent some time
at Shakala/ Shagala (modern Sialkot in Pakistan), he shifted along
with his teachers Buddhamitra and Manoratha to Ayodhya (now located in
Uttar Pradesh, northern India), a city far removed from Kashmir.
According to Posou pandou fashi zhuan, Vasubandhu, now proud of the
fame he had acquired, clung faithfully to the Hinayana doctrine in
which he was well-versed and, having no faith in the Mahayana, denied
that it was the teaching of the Buddha. Vasubandhu had up to this time
but little regard for the Yogacara treatises of his elder brother. He
had perhaps seen the voluminous Yogacarabhumi compiled by Asanga,
which may have simply repelled him by its bulk. According to Bu-ston,
he is reported to have said, "Alas, Asanga, residing in the forest,
has practised meditation for twelve years. Without having attained
anything by this meditation, he has founded a system, so difficult and
burdensome, that it can be carried only by an elephant." Asanga heard
about this attitude of his brother and feared that Vasubandhu would
use his great intellectual gifts to undermine the Mahayana. By
feigning illness he was able to summon his younger brother to
Purusapura, where he lived. However, Xuanzang differs with some of
these details and the place provided by Paramartha regarding
Vasubandhu's conversion. According to the Xiyuji the conversion of
Vasubandhu took place at Ayodhya. At the rendezvous, Vasubandhu asked
Asanga to explain the Mahayana teaching to him, whereupon he
immediately realized the supremacy of Mahayana thought. After further
study, we are told, the depth of his realization came to equal that of
his brother. Deeply ashamed of his former abuse of the Mahayana,
Vasubandhu wanted to cut out his tongue, but refrained from doing so
when Asanga told him to use it for the cause of Mahayana. Vasubandhu
regarded the study of the enormous Shatasahasrikaprajna-paramita-sutra
as of utmost importance. In view of the fact that they were the texts
that converted him to Mahayana, Vasubandhu's commentaries on the
Akshayamatinirdesha-sutra and the Dasha-bhumika may have been his
earliest Mahayana works. These were followed by a series of
commentaries on other Mahayana sutras and treatises, including the
Avatamsakasutra, Nirvanasutra, Vimalakirtinirdeshasutra, and
Shrimaladevisutra. He himself composed a treatise on vijnaptimatra
(cognition only) theory and commented on the Mahayanasamgraha,
Triratna-gotra, Amrita-mukha, and other Mahayana treatises. According
to the Tibetan biographers, his favorite sutra was either the
Shatasahasrikaprajna-paramita-sutra or the Ashtasahasrika. Considering
that these texts reveal the most profound insights into Mahayana
thinking, it is not surprising that Vasubandhu liked them. Since the
output of Vasubandhu's Mahayana works is huge, he was in all
probability writing new treatises every year. According to Posou
pandou fashi zhuan Vasubandhu engaged in his literary activity on
behalf of the Mahayana after Asanga's death. Xuanzang, however, tells
a strange story that suggests that Vasubandhu died before Asanga.
4. Intellectual Debates
With the composition of the Abhidharmakosha, Vasubandhu came to enjoy
the patronage and favor of two Gupta rulers, Vikramaditya and his heir
Baladitya, who can be identified respectively, as Skandagupta (ruled
circa 455-467 CE) and Narasimhagupta (ruled circa 467-473 CE). The
first important intellectual debate which Vasubandhu had was with
Vasurata. Vasurata was a grammarian and the husband of the younger
sister of Baladitya. It was Baladitya who had challenged Vasubandhu to
a debate. Vasubandhu was able to defeat him successfully. Another
well-known intellectual encounter which Vasubandhu had was with
Samkhyas. While Vasubandhu was away, his old master Buddhamitra was
defeated in a debate at Ayodhya by Vindhyavasin. When Vasubandhu came
to know of it, he was enraged and subsequently trounced the Samkhyas
both in debate and in a treatise the Paramarthasaptatika. Candragupta
II rewarded him with 300,000 gold coins for his victory over the
Samkhyas. Vasubandhu made use of this money to build three
monasteries, one for the Mahayanists, another one for his old
colleagues the Sarvastivadins, and a third for nuns. Refutation of
Vaisheshika and Samkhya theories had been presented by Vasubandhu
already in the Abhidharmakosha, but it was perhaps from this point
onward that Vasubandhu was regarded as a philosopher whose views could
not be lightly challenged. Samghabhadra, a Sarvastivada scholar from
Kashmir, also once challenged Vasubandhu regarding the
Abhidharmakosha. He composed two treatises, one consisting of 10,000
verses and another of 120,000 verses. According to Xuanzang, it took
twelve years for Samghabhadra to finish the two works. He challenged
Vasubandhu to a debate, but Vasubandhu refused, saying, "I am already
old, so I will let you say what you wish. Long ago, this work of mine
destroyed the Vaibhashika (that is, the Sarvastivada) doctrines. There
is no need now of confronting you… Wise men will know which of us is
right and which one is wrong."
5. Date of Vasubandhu
The date of Vasubandhu has posed a problem for historians. According
to Paramartha, Vasubandhu lived 900 years after the Mahaparinirvana of
the Buddha. At another place, Paramartha also mentions the figure of
1100. Xuanzang and his disciples respectively mention that Vasubandhu
lived 1000 and 900 years after the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha. Now
though it is generally believed that the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha
took place within few years of 400 BCE, some scholars are still
hesitant to accept this date. This has led to different scholars
proposing different dates for Vasubandhu. Noul Pari and Shio Benkyoo
give as Vasubandhu's dates the years 270 to 350 CE. Steven Anacker
proposes his date as 316-396 CE, Ui Hakuju places him in the fourth
century (320-400 CE). Takakusu Junjiroo and Kimura Taiken gave 420 to
500, Wogihara Unrai gives 390 to 470 CE, and Hikata Ryushoo gives 400
to 480 CE. Erich Frauwallner suggests that there were two Vasubandhus
and hence two different dates. According to him Vasubandhu the elder
lived between about 320 and 380 CE and Vasubandhu the younger between
around 400 and 480 CE. However, this hypothesis of two Vasubandhus is
no longer tenable in current scholarship as many of the early Chinese
documents used by Frauwallner are of spurious nature and thus, their
testimony cannot be accepted.
6. Writings of Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu is said to have been the author of one thousand works, 500
in the Hinayana tradition and 500 Mahayana treatises. But only
forty-seven works of Vasubandhu are extant, nine of which survive in
the Sanskrit original, twenty-seven in Chinese translation, and
thirty-three in Tibetan translation. The Abhidharmakosha is the most
voluminous among Vasubandhu's independent expositions. It attained the
status of a primary textbook to be studied by all students of the
tradition in the Northern Buddhist countries, including Tibet. As
pointed out above, the Abhidharmakosha pictures the Buddhist Path to
Enlightenment through the categorization and analysis of the
seventy-five dharmas.
Vasubandhu's Karmasiddhi (Establishing Karma) is a short,
quasi-Hinayana treatise coloured, as is the Abhidharmakosha, by
Sautrantika leanings. His Pancaskandhaprakarana (Exposition on the
Five Aggregates) discusses most of the subjects taken up in the
Abhidharmakosha. In cataloguing and categorization of dharmas in the
Pancaskandhaprakarana the dharmas is a bit different than the
Abhidharmakosha. Moreover, whereas the Abhidharmakosha talks about
seventy five dharmas, not only have several dharmas been added, but
many of the original seventy five have been dropped in the
Pancaskandhaprakarana.
In his Karmasiddhiprakarana (Exposition on Establishing Karma),
Vasubandhu challenged the views of those who held that dharmas are
anything other than being momentary. The doctrine of momentariness
(kshanikavada) perceived consciousness as a causal sequence of moments
in which each moment is caused by its immediate predecessor. However,
he felt that this theory could not explain certain categories of
continuity. For instance, kshanikavada did not offer any satisfactory
explanation for the re-emergence of a consciousness stream after
having been interrupted in deep sleep. Similarly, continuity from one
life to the next could not be explained satisfactorily by this theory.
To solve such inconsistencies, Vasubandhu introduced the Yogacara
notion of the alaya vijnana (storehouse consciousness). Through this
concept he explained that the seed (bija) of a previous experience is
stored subliminally and released into a new experience. In this way,
Vasubandhu not only explained continuity between two separate moments
of consciousness, but he also provided a quasi causal explanation for
the functioning of karmic retribution. In other words, Vasubandhu's
alaya vijnana provided an explanation as to how an action performed at
one time could produce its result at another time. This concept also
did away with the necessity of a permanent atman as the doer and
recipient of karma since, like a stream, it is continuously changing
with new conditions from moment to moment.
From the Yogacara point of view the most important of Vasubandhu's
works are the Vimshatika (Twenty Verses), Trimshika (Thirty Verses),
and Trisvabhavanirdesha (Exposition on the Three Natures). According
to tradition, the Trisvabhavanirdesha was reputedly his last treatise,
and his Vimshatika and Trimshika were written near the end of his
life, though we have no actual evidence to support this order. Despite
the fact that all these three texts are very concise and the
Trisvabhavanirdesha was not even known in China (and is never read in
Tibet despite being part of Tibetan canon), they form a kind of troika
and represent Vasubandhu's final accomplishment as a
Yogacara-Vijnanavada teacher.
The Vimshatika is perhaps the most original and philosophically
interesting treatise of Vasubandhu. Vasubandhu devotes a major portion
of this text in dealing with the Realist objections against Yogacara.
To the Realist position that external things must exist because they
are consistently located in space as well as time, Vasubandhu responds
by saying that objects also appear to have spatial and temporal
qualities in dreams, whereas nothing 'external' is present in the
dreams. This means that the appearance of cognitive objects does not
require an actual object external to the consciousness cognizing it.
Vasubandhu, however, points out that without the consciousness nothing
whatsoever can be apprehended. Therefore, it is consciousness that is
the necessary condition and not an external object. Vasubandhu does
not deny that cognitive objects exist. However, what he denies is that
such cognitive objects have external reference points. From the
Yogacara point of view, what we believe to be external objects are
actually nothing more than mental projections. Thus, whatever we think
about, know, experience, or conceptualize, occurs to us only in our
consciousness and nowhere else. In other words, according to
Vasubandhu, cognition takes place only in consciousness and nowhere
else. Thus, everything that we know is acquired through sensory
experience. We are fooled by consciousness into believing that those
things which we perceive and appropriate within consciousness are
actually outside our cognitive sphere. To the Realist objection that
subjective wishes do not determine objective realities, Vasubandhu
replies that due to collective-karma groups give rise to common
misperceptions. He pointed out that it is the result of a person's own
karma that determines the type of situation in which that person would
be born. Thus, Vasubandhu points out that how we see things is shaped
by previous experience, and since experience is inter-subjective, we
gather in groups that see things the way we do. To another Realist
objection that the objective world functions by determinate causal
principles, Vasubandhu points out that the appearance of causal
efficacy also occurs in dreams. Thus our conscious 'dreams' can have
causal efficacy.
The Trimshika, which became the basic text of the Faxiang (Japanese
Hossoo) school, is one of Vasubandhu's most mature works. Through
concise verses he sums up his doctrine of vijnapti matra (cognition
only) by explaining Yogacara theories of eight-consciousnesses,
three-natures and the five-step path to Enlightenment. The eight types
of consciousness are the five sense consciousnesses, the empirical
consciousness (mano-vijnana), a self-aggrandizing mentality (manas),
and the alaya-vijnana. Vasubandhu describes and explains how each of
these can be extinguished through ashraya-paravritti i.e., through the
overturning of the very basis of these eight types of consciousness.
This over-turning i.e., achievement of the Bodhi gradually takes place
through the five-step path in a way that consciousness (vijnana) is
transformed into unmediated cognition (jnana). According to the theory
of three natures, there are three cognitive realms at play: the
delusional cognitively constructed realm, which is intrinsically
unreal; the realm of causal dependency; and the perfectional realm
which is intrinsically 'empty.' To Vasubandhu, Buddhism is a method of
cleansing the stream of consciousness from 'contaminations' and
'defilements.'
The Foxinglun (Treatise on Buddha Nature) exerted great influence on
Sino-Japanese Buddhism by propounding the concept of tathagata-garbha
(Buddha Nature). The Vadavidhi (A Method for Argumentation) is another
important text attributed to Vasubandhu. Though this text is not
strictly speaking a 'logic' text and does not make any distinction
between techniques of debate and logic as such, still its importance
in the field of logic cannot be overlooked. It not only provides
information on the state of Buddhist logic prior to Dignaga, but also
paved the way for the revolutionary contribution of Dignaga and
Dharmakirti in the field of logic. Though not many details on the
meditative career of Vasubandhu are available, his
Madhyantavibhagabhashya (Commentary on the Separation of the Middle
from Extremes) points to his keen interest in the techniques of
meditation.
Vasubandhu's commentaries on sutras and shastras are by no means less
important than the above-mentioned independent treatises. He wrote
commentaries on three treatises: the Madhyantavibhaga (Discrimination
between the Middle and the Extremes), Mahayanasutralamkara (Ornament
of the Mahayana Sutras), and Dharmadharmatavibhaga/
Dharmadharmtavibhanga (Discrimination between Existence and Essence).
All these three treatises are important texts of the Yogacara school
and are ascribed to Asanga's teacher Maitreya. Vasubandhu also
composed a commentary on Asanga's Mahayanasamgraha (Compendium of
Mahayana). It is the first methodical presentation of the doctrines of
Yogacara-Vijnanavada. Vasubandhu's Sukhavativyuhasutranirdesha
(Commentary on the Sukhavativyuha Sutra) is another important text.
This text became a fundamental treatise of the Pure Land faith in
China and Japan. The Indian Yogacara-Vijnanavada is represented in
China by three schools, and the development of all these schools is
credited to the works of Vasubandhu. The first of these schools,
called the Dilun school (which was established in the first half of
the sixth century CE), took his Dashabhumikasutranirdesha (Commentary
on the Dashabhumika Sutra) as its basic text. The second, the Shelun
school which originated in the second half of the sixth century CE,
developed around a translation of the Mahayanasamgraha done by
Paramartha. The third school, known as the Faxiang school (founded by
Xuanzang and his disciple Kuiji in the seventh century), adopted the
Trimshika as its basic text.
Later in life, Vasubandhu went so far ahead with his contemplative
exercises that he even refused to engage in a debate with his worthy
opponent Samghabhadra. He died at the age of eighty. Paramartha says
that he died at Ayodhya, whereas Bu-ston says that his death took
place in the northern frontier countries, which he calls 'Nepal.' In
recognition of his contribution and achievements as a Mahayana
teacher, he came to be reverently called a bodhisattva in various
traditions from India to China. In fact, some go to the extent of even
calling him the 'second Buddha.' As rightly pointed out in Bu-ston, he
"was possessed of the wealth (vasu of the Highest wisdom and, having
propagated the Doctrine out of mercy, had become the friend (bandhu)
of the living beings."
7. References and Further Readings
* Anacker, Steven. Seven Works of Vasubandhu. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, 1984.
* Duerlinger, James. Indian Buddhist Theories of Person:
Vasubandhu's Refutation of the Theory of a Self. London:
RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
* Frauwallner, Erich. On the Date of the Buddhist Master of the
Law, Vasubandhu. Rome: IsMeo, 1951.
* Hall, Bruce C. "The Meaning of Vijnapti in Vasubandhu's Concept
of Mind." Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies
9 (1986): 7-23.
* Chimpa, Lama, and A. Chattopadhyaya, trans. Taranatha's History
of Buddhism in India. Simla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study, 1970.
* Jaini, Padmanabh S. "On the Theory of Two Vasubandhus." Bulletin
of the School of Oriental and African Studies 21 (1958): 48-53.
* Kaplan, Stefan. "A Holographic Alternative to a Traditional
Yogacara Simile: An Analysis of Vasubandhu's Trisvabhava Doctrine."
Eastern Buddhist 23 (1990): 56-78.
* Kochumuttom, Thomas. A Buddhist Doctrine of Experience: A New
Translation and Interpretation of the Works of Vasubandhu the
Yogacarin. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1982.
* Kritzer, Robert. "Vasubandhu on samapratyaya vijnanamam."
Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 16/1
(1993): 24-55.
* Levi, Sylvain. Un systeme de philosophie bouddhique: Materiaux
pour l`etude du systeme Vijnaptimatra.Paris: Bibliotheque de l`ecole
des Hautes Etudes, fasc. 260, 1932.
* Lusthaus, Dan. Buddhist Phenomenology: A Philosophical
Investigation of Yogacara Buddhism and the Ch'eng wei shih lun.
London: Curzon, 2000.
* Obermiller, E., trans. The History of Buddhism in India and
Tibet by Bu-Ston. 2nd rev. ed. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1986.
* Poussin, Louis de la Vallee, trans. L'Abhidharmakosha de
Vasubandhu. 6 vols. Bruxelles, 1971 [reprint].
* Pruden, Leo, trans. Abhidharma Kosha Bhashyam. 4 vols. Berkeley:
Asian Humanities Press, 1988-90.
* Ryushoo, Hikata. "A Reconsideration on the Date of Vasubandhu."
Bulletin of the Faculty of the Kyushu University 4 (1956): 53-74.
* Takakusu, J. "A Study of Paramartha's Life of Vasubandhu and the
Date of Vasubandhu." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1905):
33-53.
* Tola, Fernando, and Carmen Dragonetti, eds. "The
Trisvabhavakarika of Vasubandhu." Journal of Indian Philosophy 11
(1983): 225-266.
* Waldron, William S. The Buddhist Unconsciousness: The
alaya-vijnana in the Context of Indian Buddhist Thought. London:
RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
* Yamada, Isshi. "Vijnaptimatrata of Vasubandhu." Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society (1977): 158-176.
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