Celestial Hierarchy, and The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy) one short
treatise (The Mystical Theology) and ten letters expounding various
aspects of Christian Philosophy from a mystical and Neoplatonic
perspective. Presenting himself as Dionysius the Areopagite, the
disciple of Paul mentioned in Acts 17:34, his writings had the status
of apostolic authority until the 19th century when studies had shown
the writings denoted a marked influence from the Athenian Neoplatonic
school of Proclus and thus were probably written ca. 500. Although
the attribution of authorship has proven to be a falsification, the
unknown author (hereafter referred to as Ps-Dionysius) has not lost
his credibility as an articulate Athenian Neoplatonist expressing an
authentic Christian mystical tradition. Indeed with eloquent poetic
language and strong exposition of ideas, the Dionysian corpus ranks
among the classics of western spirituality.
1. History and Development of Christian Platonism up to Pseudo-Dionysius
Born within a 500-year old Graeco-Roman culture, Christianity received
a pervasive influence from the then 400-year old Platonist tradition
very early on. Despite the official outlawing of so-called pagan
philosophy in the 6th century, Platonism or Neoplatonism, continued to
maintain a dynamically evolving influence for the ensuing thousand
years within the sphere of Christianity and beyond that, interest in
Platonism is waxing strong today. In general, the prominent early
Christian Platonists were men already possessing a classical
Graeco-Roman culture and schooled in the Middle Platonic tradition and
who would subsequently convert to Christianity thus bringing their
background and knowledge to the service of their new faith. Already,
Philo of Alexandria (20 BC – 40 AD) had developed an extensive Middle
Platonic interpretation of the Jewish scriptures (scriptural
symbology, logos theology, moral philosophy, etc.). With the solid
framework provided by Philo, Alexandria became the home of the first
Christian Platonists: Clement (160 – 220) and Origen (185 -253) who
both in their own way crafted a considerable system of correspondences
between Platonism and Christianity. The influence of Neoplatonism can
be seen with the Cappadocian fathers Basil (330-379), Gregory
Nazianzus (329 – 389), and Gregory of Nyssa (331/40 – ca. 395); as
well as Synesius of Cyrene (373? – 414). Origen's influence continued
with the fathers of the Egyptian desert, Macarius (295 – 386),
Evagrius Pontus (345 – 399), and John Cassian (+350). The Neoplatonic
influence appears in the Latin Church with Marius Victorinus (281/291-
?), Ambrose (354 – 450), Augustine (354 – 430), and Boethius (460? –
524). Philiponus (fl. 500?) is a Christian Neoplatonist who studied
with the last teachers of the pagan Athenian school.
2. Mystery Schools, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, and the "Platonic Underground"
In accordance with his Neoplatonic background, Ps-Dionysius adopts the
initiation language of the Mystery religions. Basically, the Mystery
religions can be considered as the esoteric counterpart to the
exoteric popular religions. The symbols and mythology of popular cults
of worship are thought to contain an esoteric meaning which reveal a
deeper mystical knowledge. The pledge of secrecy being integral to the
Mystery religions, comparatively little information about them has
come down to us. There seems to be a stock of similar myths, symbols,
and ritual common to all of them and their influence was pervasive in
both the Pagan and Christian world:
The Soul was the one subject, and the knowledge of the Soul the
one object of all the ancient Mysteries. In the 'Fall' of
PISTIS-SOPHIA, and her rescue by her Syzygy, JESUS, we see the
ever-enacted drama of the suffering and ignorant Personality, which
can only be saved by the immortal Individuality or rather by its own
yearning towards IT (H. P. Blavatsky, "Commentary on the
Pistis-Sophia," in Collected Writings, Vol. XIII, The Theosophical
Publishing House, Wheaton: 1982, p. 40).
The Neoplatonic schools at this period can be considered to represent
a middle ground between the pagan esoteric cults [Hellenic Mysteries,
Oriental Mystery cults (Mithraism, Attis), Hermetism, Greek alchemists
(Zosimos)] and the popular state forms of religious worship. Whether a
Christian Neoplatonist such as Ps-Dionysius played a similar mediating
role between the exoteric forms of Judeo-Christianity (popular Roman
Catholic state religion) and esoteric Christianity (Gnosticism,
Arianism, Docetism) would be a matter of conjecture, but what is
interesting is how the Dionysian corpus formulates a creative
philosophical synthesis that reflects a more open Christian position
in a period when all the above-mentioned religious movements where in
a very dynamic state of ferment and conflict which saw the rise of
Christianity and the waning of Paganism.
3. The Works of Dionysius the Areopagite
There are five works ascribed to Dionysius: The Divine Names, The
Mystical Theology, The Celestial Hierarchy, The Ecclesiastical
Hierarchy and his Epistles. All of these works are interrelated and,
taken together, form a complex whole. Paul Rorem gives a very good
overview of how these works unfold:
The point here is that not all affirmations concerning God are
equally inappropriate; they are arranged in a descending order of
decreasing congruity. Affirmative theology begins with the loftier,
more congruous comparisons and then proceeds "down" to the less
appropriate ones. Thus, as the author reminds us, The Theological
Representations [not extant] began with God's oneness and proceeded
down into the multiplicity of affirming the Trinity and the
incarnation. The Divine Names then affirmed the more numerous
designations for God which come from mental concepts, while The
Symbolic Theology [not extant] "descended" into the still more
pluralized realm of sense perception and its plethora of symbols for
the deity. This pattern of descending affirmations and ascending
negations can be interpreted in terms of late Neoplatonism's
"procession" from the One down into plurality and the "return" of all
back to the One. In the "return," not all negations concerning God are
equally appropriate; the attributes to be negated are arranged in an
ascending order of decreasing incongruity, first considering and
negating the lowest or most obviously false statements about God and
then moving up to deny these that may seem more congruous. Thus the
first to be denied are the perceptible attributes, starting with The
Mystical Theology, Chapter 4, which therefore previews the two
subsequent treatises on perceptible symbols, The Celestial Hierarchy
and The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy. Chapter 2 of the former work will
continue the theme of negating and transcending symbols, namely,
interpreting first the most incongruous of the perceptible symbols
attributed to the celestial, whether to the angels or to God. The
anagogical or uplifting method of interpretation in these two
treatises incorporates into itself the principles of negative
theology. Both the spatial, material depiction of the angels in the
scriptures and also the temporal, sequential images of God in the
liturgy must be transcended in the ascent from the perceptible to the
intelligible. Thus, "as we climb higher," Chapter 5 of The Mystical
Theology denies and moves beyond all our concepts or "conceptual"
attributes of God and concludes by abandoning all speech and thought,
even negations. (Pseudo-Dionysius, The Complete Works, New York:
Paulist Press 1987, p.140 note).
a. The Divine Names (13 Chapters)
Chapter 1 Dionysius the Elder to Timothy the Fellow Elder: What the
goal of this discourse is, and the tradition regarding the divine
names. A general introduction in which God is considered omniscient,
beyond all human understanding and description and therefore can only
be expressed through symbols, names which are found in the scriptures.
One can approach the truth of God through contemplation of the Divine
Symbols. The conception of God is a philosophical one, akin to the
One, or the Good of Neoplatonism, and not anthropomorphic Old
Testament God of popular theology.
Chapter 2 Concerning the unified and differentiated Word of God, and
what the divine unity and differentiation is.
The Neoplatonic concept of emanation finds its counterpart in the
"divine procession." Jesus Christ is considered to be a mystery that
is beyond human contemplation.
Chapter 3 The power of praying, concerning the blessed Hierotheus,
piety and our theology. Here the author speaks of his teacher
Hierotheus and refers to a work of his entitled "Elements of Theology"
which is not extant.
Chapter 4 Concerning "God," "Light," "Beautiful," "Love," "Ecstasy,"
and "Zeal" and that evil is neither a being, nor from a being, nor in
beings. Here begins the metaphysical explanations of the Divine Names
taken from the scriptures. Also explained is the mystical concept of
"yearning" for union with the Good and the Beautiful. The
philosophical explanation of evil is evidently much more Platonic than
the anthropomorphic concept of evil as expressed by the conventional
church dogma. (The parallels on the discussion of evil to the De
Malorum Subsistentia of Proclus provided the initial clues in proving
the pseudonymous authorship.)
Chapter 5 Concerning "Being" and also concerning paradigms. The
metaphysical causes of Being are discussed.
Chapter 6 Concerning "Life." The transcendent, absolute, eternal
nature of life is dealt with.
Chapter 7 Concerning "Wisdom," "Mind," "Truth," "Faith." The basis of
a divine, transcendent wisdom where humans derive their intelligence
and understanding through participation with the Divine Mind is
discussed.
Chapter 8 Concerning "Power," "Righteousness," "Salvation,"
"Redemption," and also inequality. This chapter deals with the
ordering of the universe according to divine laws by which a
transcendent order maintains the dynamic harmony of all things.
Chapter 9 Concerning greatness and smallness, sameness and difference,
similarity and dissimilarity, rest, motion, equality. It is shown how
the fundamental unity of God can be seen in the multiplicity of the
universe at the macrocosmic and microcosmic levels.
Chapter 10 Concerning "Omnipotent," "Ancient of Days," and also
concerning "Eternity" and "Time." This chapter deals with the
philosophical aspects of time and eternity.
Chapter 11 Concerning "Peace," and what is intended by "being itself,"
"power itself" and things said in this vein. The intelligent harmony
which brings things together in a communion of concord is discussed.
Chapter 12 Concerning "Holy of Holies," "King of Kings," "Lord of
Lords," "God of Gods." Holy of Holies deals with Purity; Kingship,
with law and order; Lordship, stability through possession of the Good
and the Beautiful, God, Providence which sees everything.
Chapter 13 Concerning "Perfect" and "One." Here is a synthesis of the
whole work, returning to the idea of the One as discussed in
Neoplatonic terms.
b. The Mystical Theology (5 Chapters)
Chapter 1 An explanation of Ps-Dionysius' negative theology in which
one rises to high levels of divine contemplation by defining God by
what it is not because it is beyond assertion and denial.
Chapter 2 How one should be united to, and attribute praises to the
cause of all things which is beyond all things.
Chapter 3 What are the affirmative theologies and what are the
negative. The higher we rise towards the transcendent, the more
language fails to describe it.
Chapter 4 That the supreme cause of every perceptible thing is not
itself perceptible. The negative theology begins by denying it all
formal existence perceptible by the senses.
Chapter 5 It is stated that the supreme Cause of every conceptual
thing is not itself conceptual. We are to apprehend it by rising to
the highest concepts and then going beyond where neither assertion nor
denial can be attributed to it.
c. The Celestial Hierarchy (15 Chapters)
Chapter 1 That every divine illumination, descending with goodness and
according to different modes to the object of its providence, remains
nonetheless simple, and indeed unifies what it illumines. The treatise
begins with an explanation of the value of the symbol as a
representation of spiritual essences.
Chapter 2 It is appropriate to reveal the mysteries of God and of
heaven with symbols without resemblance. Here it is explained that the
many images and symbols in the Bible are not meant to be taken at dead
letter face value. As man is incapable of contemplating Divine Truth
directly, our divinely inspired ancestors have left us symbols adapted
to our capacity of understanding which help us to raise our
consciousness to the understanding and contemplation of the divine
truths; the second function of the symbol is that it also serves as a
veil to these sacred truths for those who it would be imprudent to
reveal these things to. The value of the symbol therefore depends on
the person's capacity to penetrate its secrets.
Chapter 3 In what does the Hierarchy consist of and what is its use.
The notion of hierarchy is that seeing that not everyone can equally
directly contemplate and participate in the supreme cause, there is
therefore a great chain of hierarchies emanating from the most
spiritual origins down to the most material planes. To undertake the
divine ascension, there are intermediaries for every level of reality
like the steps on a ladder. The higher hierarchies, receiving a more
direct illumination, can transmit that light to the lower hierarchies
at the level they are able to perceive it and the higher hierarchies
also serve as an accessible image of the transcendent, an example for
the hierarchy immediately below, whose members can contemplate in
order to rise to a higher level. The closer a hierarchy is to the
source of divine light, the greater the degree of purity and
simplicity and resemblance to the source.
Chapter 4 What the names given to the angels signify. An interesting
point concerning the hierarchies is that no human being can directly
contemplate the ultimate Source. Even Moses did not have a direct
vision of God but rather a vision adapted to his level of perception.
It is shown how the incarnation of Christ was done in accord with the
hierarchical order of angels.
Chapter 5 Why are all the celestial essences distinctly called angels.
On the hierarchical scales the angels are at the lowest degree of the
hierarchy. This is because the higher levels contain all the
illumination and power of the lower levels; but the lower do not have
the same level of participation with the higher. Therefore the term
angel is used because, in a sense, it is the lowest common
denominator.
Chapter 6 What is the first order of the celestial essences, what is
the middle order and what is the inferior order.
All the names of the hierarchies appear in the scriptures. They are
divided into three groups of three hierarchies each:
First – Seraphim, Cherubim and Thrones
Second – Dominions, Virtues and Powers
Third – Principalities, Archangels and Angels
Chapter 7 Of the Seraphim, the Cherubim and the Thrones and of the
first hierarchy that they constitute. The meaning of the first three
angelic hierarchies are as follows:
Seraphim – Fire, "Those who burn"
Cherubim – Messengers of knowledge, Wisdom
Thrones – Seat of God
Chapter 8 Of the Dominions, the Virtues and the Powers and the middle
hierarchy that they constitute. The meaning of the second order of the
hierarchies are as follows:
Dominions – Justice
Virtues – Courage, Virility
Powers – Order, Harmony
Chapter 9 Of the Principalities, the Archangels and the Angels and of
the last hierarchy that they constitute. The meaning of the third
order are as follows:
Principalities – Authority
Archangels – Unity
Angels – Revelation, messengers
Chapter 10 Recapitulation and conclusion concerning the proper
ordering of the angelic hierarchy. Each order, therefore has in itself
three orders – first, middle and last. It is said that none of the
orders are totally perfect; all the hierarchies thus mutually
participate in a constant march, striving towards perfection.
Chapter 11 Why all the celestial essences receive in common the name
of the celestial powers. The celestial powers have three qualities –
essence, power and act.
Chapter 12 Why do the highest of high priests receive the name of
angels. Why are priests called angels? Because although the lower
orders do not participate of the higher orders per se, the
illuminations of the higher orders do radiate all the way through to
the lowest orders in a gradually decreasing brightness, therefore it
can be said that the lower can receive the light of the higher in an
indirect manner.
Chapter 13 Why is it said that it is the Seraphim that purified the
prophet Isaiah. In the Bible, when Isaiah was purified by a Seraphim,
it is not to be understood that he was in direct contact with such an
immeasurably high order; what is meant is that the illuminating
properties and powers of the order of the Seraphim had descended
through the several intermediary orders to purify Isaiah. It is a
question of opacity and translucency in regards to the light. Light
shines and its rays can pass through substances depending on its
degree of translucency, will reflect more or less of the light. This
analogy applies to human consciousness in relation to divine light.
Chapter 14 What does the number attributed to the angels signify. It
is stated that there are an immeasurable number of angels in every
order, and therefore a truly infinite number of angels are acting in
the various planes of the universe. There is an angel overlooking the
welfare of every nation as well.
Chapter 15 What are the figurative images of the angelic powers. This
chapter discusses the various symbols in reference to the angelic
functions such as fire; man; infant; sacred clothes and instruments;
air, wind and clouds; metals and stones; animals.
d. The Ecclesiastical Hierarchy (7 Chapters)
Chapter 1 What is the tradition of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and
what is its purpose. It is explained how the tradition began initially
with a divine transmission of sacred symbols and forms which were
thereafter transmitted to succeeding generations.
Chapter 2. 1 The rite of illumination.
The goal of the hierarchy is "greatest likeness and union with god
through obedience of the commandments and doing the sacred acts." And
the first initiation is the divine birth, meaning birth to a spiritual
life.
2.2 A postulant who wishes to enter the spiritual life has a sponsor
who presents him to the hierarch. The postulant goes through various
ritual gestures including being anointed with oil and immersed in
water three times. It is a baptism.
2.3 This is a practical applications of the symbols. The rituals are
not merely functional gestures but are meant to convey actual
transformation processes in the candidates consciousness. For
example, the immersion in water symbolizes a dissolution of the old
material way of life to reemerge into the spiritual which is further
symbolized by putting on bright new clothes and fragrant ointments.
Firm opposition to whatever hinders our communion, brave resolution in
striving to uplift oneself and a will for victory over the forces of
death and destruction is stressed.
Chapter 3.1 The rite of the synaxis.
Or the Eucharist. What these initiation operations do is by granting
communion, it gives the participants an inner unity by gathering
together the divided and scattered fragments of our consciousness.
3.2 Mystery of the synaxis or communion. The Eucharist is the ritual
re-enactment of the last supper.
3.3 A symbolic explanation of the Eucharist is explained as well as
the value of Christ's example that we should strive to imitate. There
is also different levels of participation in the ceremonies according
to one's level of purification, clarity of vision, and freedom from
fantasies.
Chapter 4.1 The ritual of ointment and what is perfected by it. The
ointment is the third of the three holy sacraments explained.
4.2 Mystery of the sacred ointment. This consists in consecrating the
sacred ointment used for almost all the sacraments of sanctification
and rites of consecration.
4.3 Perfecting and consecrating with ointment – symbolizes a
visitation of the Divine Spirit.
Chapter 5.1 Concerning the clerical orders, powers, activities, and
consecrations. Here are three orders which are a reflection of the
triple order of the celestial hierarchy. And these orders have a
further triple division. Furthermore they have a triple power of
purification, illumination and perfection.
1- Hierarchs – Sanctification of clerical orders, consecration of
ointment and rite of purification and consecration of the Holy
butter.
2- Priests – Illumination
3- Deacons - Purification
5.2 The mystery of the clerical consecrations of the three orders. The
various rites of consecration of the three orders are explained.
5.3 The hierarch does not work the consecration through his own
personal authority but is rather an intermediary for the Divine
Powers.
Chapter 6.1 Concerning the orders of those being initiated. Various
categories of candidates who will approach the mysteries are detailed:
1- The three orders of candidates receiving direct instruction
(incubation, instruction).
2- Those who fell away and are returning to the church.
3- Those who are weak, fearful and require strengthening.
4- Those who have lived a life of sin and need sanctification.
5- Those who are attentive to the spiritual life but lack
firmness in practice.
There is then an intermediate level – those ready to enter upon the
path of contemplation; candidate priests for illumination.
There is also the order of monks – they are considered purified and
have complete power and holiness in its own activities within the
hierarchies.
6.2 Mystery of the consecration of a monk. The monastic profession and
tonsure is explained.
6.3 Renunciation of all activities in act and thought that distract
from the sacred life is stressed. The correspondence of
purification, illumination and perfection with the celestial
hierarchies is explained.
Chapter 7.1 The rite for the dead. Dying is called a sacred rebirth.
7.2 Mystery regarding those who died sacredly. The rites are explained
for those who belong to the orders.
7.3 The rewards are not equal for all. One will live in a state of
blessedness in the afterlife corresponding to the degree of
saintliness one has achieved in material life. This treatise closes
on a point concerning baptism of children. The idea of baptism at a
young age is that it is considered good to develop sacred habits at a
young age and the baptism is effected only if it is agreed that the
child be entrusted to a spiritual parent who will afterwards provide
them with a religious education.
e. The Epistles (10 Letters)
Letter 1 – To the monk, Gaius- Deals with negative theology.
Letter 2 – To the monk, Gaius- Is a discussion on the Good.
Letter 3 – To the monk, Gaius- Deals with the mystery of Jesus.
Letter 4 – To the monk, Gaius- Of the transcendent character of Jesus;
the humanity of Jesus is emphasized.
Letter 5 – To Dorotheus, deacon- Deals with negative theology.
Letter 6 – To Sosipater, Priest- Denis is against the denunciation of
cults who express a different point of view than Christianity.
Letter 7 - To Polycarp, a hierarch- Regarding a discussion with
Apollophanes, a sophist, Ps-Dionysius counsels not to refute his
opinions but simply establish the truth as clearly as he can and let
the validity of his explanations stand for themselves. There is a
reference to the Mithraic cult as well as to various Christian
miracles.
Letter 8 To Demophilus, a monk- This is the longest of the letters
and concerns a monk who turned away a repenting sinner who wished to
return to the church. Ps-Dionysius disapproves of the monk's actions
and extols the virtue of meekness, kindness and tolerance in which
reason governs anger. There are also many details concerning the
practical functioning of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and the
authority and respect that the respective ranks should command. The
letter ends with a personal relating of a miraculous vision of a
certain Carpos illustrating the mercifulness of Jesus.
Letter 9 To Titus, Hierarch- A question concerning the symbolism of
the mixing bowl and food and drink as spiritual nourishment is dealt
with.
Letter 10 To John the theologian- In this letter, words of comfort and
support to an exiled apostle are conveyed.
4. The Dionysian Influence
The Dionysian corpus has had an wide influence on various aspects of
Christian thought. The following list is divided into three general
currents of influence: philosophy, mysticism and occultism. By no
means comprehensive, this list aims to simply give a general overview
of some prominent thinkers in the Christian Platonist tradition. The
three categories are very general and the categorization loose, as
many people on this list could easily overlap into several categories.
a. Philosophy
Maximus Confessor (580 – 662), Alcuin (730 – 806), John Scotus
Eriugena (fl. 850), Michael Psellus (1018 – 1096), Hugh of St-Victor
(+1141), Richard of St-Victor (+1173), Thomas Aquinas (1125 – 1274),
Thiery of Chartres (fl. 1142 -1150), Robert Grosseteste (1175 – ca.
1225?) Bonaventure (1221 – 1274), Gemisthos Plethon (ca. 1370? –
1450), Nicholas of Cusa (1401 – 1464), Denis the Carthusian (1402 –
1471), Marsilio Ficino (1433 – 1499), Lefebvre d'Etaples (1436 -1520),
Thomas Vaughan (1622 – 1666).
b. Mysticism
Bernard of Clairvaux (1091 -1153), Hildegarde of Bingen (1098 – 1179),
Jacopone da Todi (1128 - 1306), Meister Eckhart (1260 – 1327), John
Tauler (1300 -1361), Henry Suso (ca. 1295 – 1365), John Ruysbroeck
(1293 – 1381), Henry de Mayle (ca. 1360 – 1415), Catherine of Sienna
(1347 -1380), Jean Gerson (1363 – 1409), Francisco de Orsuna (+1540),
Teresa of Avila (1515 – 1582), John of the Cross (1515 – 1582),
Augustine Baker (1575 -1641), unknown author of the Cloud of Unknowing
(ca. 1350 – 1395)
c. Occultism (Esoteric traditions of Alchemy, Hermetism, Kabbalah)
Albert the Great (1206 – 1240), Roger Bacon (1210/14 – ca. 1292),
Dante (1265 – 1321), Ramon Lully (1232 – 1316?), Johannes Reuchlin
(1455 -1522), Johannes Trithemius (1462 -1516), Pico de la Mirandola
(1463 – 1494), Francesco Giorgi (1466 -1540), Cornelius Agrippa (1486
– 1534), John Dee (1537 -1608), Giordano Bruno (1548 – 1600), Robert
Fludd (1574-1637) Jacob Boehme (1575 – 1624), William Law (1686
-1761), Eckhartausen (1752 -1803), Louis-Claude de St-Martin (1743
-1803), William Blake (1757 -1827).
5. References and Further Reading
* Dillon, John, The Middle Platonists, Duckworth, Great Britain, 1977.
* Ferguson, Everett (ed.), Encyclopedia of Early Christianity,
Garland Publishing, New York, 1990.
* Finan, Thomas; Twaney, Vincent (eds.), The Relationship between
Neoplatonism and Christianity, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 1992.
* Luibheid, Colm (transl.), Pseudo-Dionysius: The Complete Works,
Paulist Press (Classics of Western Spirituality), New York, 1987.
* Livraga, Jorge Angel, Manuel d'Introduction aux philosophies
d'orient et d'occident, Nouvelle Acropole, France.
* O'Leary, Dominic J., Neoplatonism and Christian Thought, State
University Press, New York, 1982.
* Underhill, Evelyn, Mysticism, Meridian, Noonday Press, New-York, 1955.
* Yates, Frances A., Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition,
Routledge and Kegan Paul, London. 1964.
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