most important commentary on the classic Daoist text Zhuangzi
(Chuang-tzu). He is responsible for the current arrangement of
thirty-three chapters divided into inner, outer and miscellaneous
sections. His commentary represents a substantial philosophical
achievement that has been compared to the Zhuangzi itself. Ostensibly
the purpose of a commentary should be to elucidate the ideas in the
original text. However, Guo's Zhuangzi commentary adds many original
ideas. It is possible to delve deeper into their meaning by examining
the text on which he is commenting as if it were a commentary on the
work of Guo. The fact that Guo chose to present his philosophy this
way—within the framework of this Daoist classic—has served as a
blueprint for the manner in which Confucians, Daoists and,
increasingly from Guo's time, Buddhists have engaged in constructive
dialogue, building systems of thought which include the strengths of
all three systems.
1. Life and Work
Very little is known about the life of Guo Xiang. He lived in a time
of great political upheaval and yet his own political career was one
of consistent and significant success. He maintained a high position
within one of the six rebellious factions that contributed to the
rapid demise of the Western Jin Dynasty (265-316 CE). This fact is
interesting because unlike such contemporary figures as Ji Kang
(223-262 CE) or Ruan Ji (210-263 CE), who both retired from what they
saw as a corrupt governmental system, Guo remained to play what he
regarded as the proper role of an engaged public dignitary.
Like the other great figure of the xuanxue (mysterious or profound
learning) movement, Wang Bi (Wang Pi, 226-249 CE), Guo sought to
synthesize the accepted Confucian morality within an ontological
system that would encompass the insights expressed in the Zhuangzi and
the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching). But while Wang Bi put the greatest
emphasis on the unitary nature of reality, particularly in the concept
of wu (nothingness), Guo emphasized individuality and interdependence.
Guo's position is not as diametrically opposed to Wang's as is often
assumed, Guo does not claim there is a dualist or objective reality to
the world around us and he does maintain the use of dao as the
unitary, nameless and formless basis of reality. This reality is
expressed as a process Guo calls "self-transformation" or "lone
transformation" (zihua or duha) in which all things are responsible
for their own creation and for the set of relationships that exist
between themselves and the rest of the world. Our self-transformation
was and is at each moment conditioned by all the self-transformations
coming before us and we in turn condition all the self-transformations
that come after us. By shifting the focus onto those relationships,
Guo arrives at a view of the transcendent sage that is radically
different and innovative. While the traditional view of a Daoist sage
was someone who removed himself from the mundane world, for Guo this
notion is false and misleading. The social and political environments
in which people relate to each other are no less natural than a forest
or mountaintop and to a person who appreciates why she exists in the
particular relationship to others in which she does, the proper course
of action is not to run away, but to become involved. In other words,
we must become engaged with the world around us, but not because of a
continuous state of existence that we share with people and things
around us, rather, it is because of a continuous act of creation that
at its core makes us responsible for the world and its proper
maintenance.
Ji Kang and Ruan Ji pursued the ideal of "overcoming orthodox teaching
and following nature" (yue mingjiao er ren ziran). "Orthodox teaching"
(mingjiao) includes the proper behavior being matched to the proper
role, such as for a parent, a child, a ruler or a subject. Different
xuanxue figures accepted these ideals to different extents, but nearly
all held them in distinction to ziran, naturalness or spontaneity.
Guo's concept of ziran contained all governmental and social spheres,
so it made no sense to try to set the realms of mingjiao and ziran in
opposition to each other. For Guo, the roles required by Confucian
propriety are not imposed upon a natural system that would otherwise
be in chaos. They are, instead, the natural result of the system of
spontaneous self-transformation and chaos is merely what results when
one fails to recognize one's proper role. Guo directs much of the
Zhuangzi's advice about equalizing apparent contradiction in this
direction.
There is some controversy over the true authorship of Guo's commentary
to the Zhuangzi. The earliest source, the Jin Shu (Standard History of
the Jin Dynasty), accuses Guo of plagiarizing all but two chapters of
the commentary from Xiang Xiu (d. 300 CE), writing a generation
earlier. Current scholarship, while acknowledging that Guo made use of
Xiang Xiu's work and other earlier commentaries, still credits Guo as
the principal author. The evidence for this recognition falls into
three main areas. Firstly, the most innovative philosophical features
in the commentary do not correspond with those in other works by Xiang
Xiu. Secondly, in the early twentieth century, a postface to the
commentary was discovered which details the work Guo carried out and
finally, various linguistic analyses and references in other works
suggest that Guo is the principal author.
2. Central Concepts
a. Lone/Self-transformation and the Absence of a Creator
Guo calls the process by which all things come into existence "lone
transformation" (duhua) or "self-transformation" (zihua). The claim
that all things share equally in creating the world does not deny that
differences exist, but it does deny that these differences translate
into differences of value. That one person may be less talented or
intelligent than another does not affect the worth of that person, but
rather helps determine the proper role for him to play
Given the importance of self-transformation in Guo's philosophical
system, he wished to deny any organizing principle. Even Wang Bi's
emphasis on wu (nothingness) came too close to occupying the place of
an original cause. It was necessary for Guo to draw the line clearly,
even if it meant contradicting the text on which he was commenting. In
a note to a section of the Zhuangzi that leaves open the question of
whether there is a creator, Guo writes:
The myriad things have myriad attributes, the adopting and
discarding [of their attributes] is different, as if there was a true
ruler making them do so. But if we search for evidence or a trace of
this ruler, in the end we will not find it. We will then understand
that things arise of themselves, and are not caused by something else.
(Zhuangzi commentary, chapter 2)
b. Ziran, Action and Nonaction
The natural, spontaneous state of affairs that results from the
process of self-transformation is ziran. Ziran is a compound of two
different terms zi, meaning "self" and ran, meaning "to be so," and
can be translated as "nature," "the self-so," or "things as they are."
While many other Daoist thinkers distinguish ziran from the mundane
social world in which we live, for Guo they are identical. Even social
hierarchy is the natural result of how things come to be as
themselves. When we follow our natures, the result is peace and
prosperity. When we oppose them, the result is chaos.
Thus, Guo seeks to provide a specific interpretation to the doctrine
of nonaction (wuwei). He writes that "taking no action does not mean
folding one's arms and closing one's mouth" (Zhuangzi commentary,
chapter 11). In chapter 3 of the Zhuangzi, we encounter the story of
Cook Ding, who carves an ox, not by using his senses or dexterity, but
by equating his idea of who he is with his situation and the task at
hand. For Guo, if one has correctly perceived the way in which all
things share in the creation of ziran, then correct action in the
world will follow naturally.
Therefore, what Guo means by ziran is very different from what Western
philosophers refer to as "the state of nature." Ziran is the
expression of a naturally peaceful and harmonious system, available to
all who can recognize their place.
c. Comfort with One's Role (an qi fen)
One key to the correct appreciation of one's place in the world is
Guo's concept of fen, meaning "share" or "role." Guo employs the idea
of qi (ch'i), "vital energy" or "vital essence," to explain the manner
in which the dao imbues the world with life-giving force. One's
natural allotment of qi therefore determines one's fen. The proper
functioning of the world and the personal happiness of the people in
it is maintained by the correct appreciation of one's place. This is
not to say Guo denies the possibility of growth and change, which are
clear and necessary parts of nature, including social systems. In the
same way that the body has hands, feet and head that play different
roles according to their different endowments, so the world functions
best when people act according to their proper fen. Thus, one's fen is
both the allotment of qi received from heaven and the role one must
maintain within the system. Indeed, there is no difference between
natural abilities and social obligations.
d. The Sage
For Guo, the Sage (shengren) is someone who directs his talent and
understanding for the benefit of society. The phrase neisheng waiwang
describes someone who is internally like a sage and outwardly acts as
a ruler. In Guo's view, the former necessitates the latter. In chapter
one of the Zhuangzi, we read the story of the sage ruler Yao, who
attempts to cede his throne to the recluse Xu You, but is rebuffed. In
the story, it is clear that Xu You has a greater level of
understanding than does Yao, but Guo's commentary presents the matter
differently:
Are we to insist that a man fold his arms and sit in silence in
the middle of some mountain forest before we say that he is practicing
nonaction? This is why the words of Laozi and Zhuangzi are rejected by
responsible officials. This is why responsible officials insist on
remaining in the realm of action without regret … egotistical people
set themselves in opposition to things, while he who is in accord with
things is not opposed to them … therefore he profoundly and deeply
responds to things without any deliberate mind of his own and follows
whatever comes into contact with him … he who is always with the
people no matter what he does is the ruler of the world wherever he
may be. (Zhuangzi commentary, chapter 1)
It seems clear from these sentiments that in Guo's view not only is
Yao a better model for a ruler than Xu You, but also that Confucius is
a better model for a sage than Zhuangzi.
3. Guo Xiang's Influence on Chinese Thought
The Zhuangzi has long been held in high regard as one of the main
pillars of Daoist philosophy, as well as one of the most accessible,
entertaining and popular philosophical works of any genre. However the
important contribution of Guo to the way in which we understand the
Zhuangzi is less well known, particularly in its non-Chinese
translations. He deserves credit not only for the external editing and
arrangement of the text, but more importantly for developing a
philosophical framework that allows for the continued dominance of
accepted Confucian codes of proper behavior, yet still keeps open
philosophical discussion of wider insights on the nature of reality.
While the earlier work of Wang Bi may have eased the entry of Buddhism
into the Chinese mainstream, it is within the framework provided by
Guo that the three strands of Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism have
found a strategy for coexistence that has contributed to the success
and growth of them all.
4. References and Further Reading
Allison, Robert E. Chuang-Tzu for Spiritual Transformation. Albany:
State University of New York Press, 1990.
Aoki, Goro. "Kaku Sho Soshichu shisen" [Examining Guo Xiang's Zhuangzi
commentary]. Kyoto kyoiku gaku kiyo 55 (1979): 196-202.
Chan, Alan K.L. "Guo Xiang." In The Encyclopedia of Chinese
Philosophy, ed. Anthonio S. Cua, New York: Routledge, 2003, 280-284.
Chan, Wing-tsit, ed. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1963. A good selection of translated
passages in addition to an excellent treatment of Guo Xiang's thought
and xuanxue in general.
Feng, Yu-lan (Feng Youlan) trans. Chuang Tzu: A New Selected
Translation with an Exposition of the Philosophy of Kuo Hsiang,
Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1933. (Reprint, New York: Gordon, 1975.)
Feng, Yu-lan (Feng Youlan). A History of Chinese Philsosophy, v. 2,
trans. Derk Bodde. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953.
Fukunaga, Mitsuji. "Kako Sho no Soshi chu to Ko Shu no Shoshi chu"
[Guo Xiang's Zhuangzi commentary and Xiang Xiu's Zhuangzi commentary].
Toho gakuho 36 (1964): 187-215. This was some of the groundbreaking
work on the Xiang Xiu controversy. Its findings are summarized in
English by Livia Knaul's article in The Journal of Chinese Religions.
Fukunaga, Mitsuji. "'No-Mind' in Chuang-tzu and Ch'an Buddhism."
Zinbun 12 (1969): 9-45.
Holtzman, Donald. "Les sept sages de la forêt des bambous et la
société de leur temps." T'oung Pao 44 (1956): 317-346.
Knaul, Livia. "Lost Chuang-tzu Passages." Journal of Chinese Religions
10 (1982): 53-79. This article contains a translation of the "lost"
postface, as well as a detailed treatment of the Xiang Xiu
controversy.
Knaul, Livia. "The Winged Life: Kuo Hsiang's Mystical Philosophy."
Journal of Chinese Studies 2.1 (1985): 17-41.
Kohn, Livia. Early Chinese Mysticism: Philosophy and Soteriology in
the Taoist Tradition. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Kohn, Livia. "Kuo Hsiang and the Chuang-tzu." Journal of Chinese
Philosophy 12 (1985): 429-447.
Mair, Victor H., ed. Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, 1983.
Mather, Richard B. "The Controversy Over Conformity and Naturalness
During the Six Dynasties." History of Religions 9 (1969-1970):
160-180.
Robinet, Isabelle. "Kouo Siang ou le monde comme absolu." T'oung Pao
69 (1983): 73-107.
Tang Yijie. Guo Xiang. Taibei: Dongda tushugongsi, 1999. One of the
most acclaimed biographers of Guo Xiang. Not currently translated into
English.
Yü, Ying-shih. "Individualism and the Neo-Taoist Movement in Wei-Chin
China." In Individualism and Holism: Studies in Confucian and Taoist
Values, ed. Donald Munro (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies,
University of Michigan, 1985), 121-155.
Ziporyn, Brook. The Penumbra Unbound: The Neo-Taoist Philosophy of Guo
Xiang. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003.
Ziporyn, Brook. "The Self-So and Its Traces in the Thought of Guo
Xiang." Philosophy East and West 43 (1993): 511-539.
Zhuang Yaolang. Guo Xiang xuanxue. Taibei: Liren shuju, 2002.
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