thinker whose philosophy connected a rich diversity of historical
perspectives, culminating in a unique and unrivaled form of
materialism, one recommending a bold reconciliation of spirit and
nature. Santayana was also a poet, and he wrote a work of fiction, The
Last Puritan, that was a Book of the Month Club selection in 1936, the
same year he adorned the cover of Time magazine. Though he spent his
formative intellectual life in America and ultimately is best
categorized philosophically in that tradition, Santayana spent the
better part of his life and publishing career in Europe. He spent his
early childhood in his birth-country of Spain and throughout his
expansive travels and residencies never relinquished his native
citizenship. Displaying in both composition and criticism a prodigious
literary imagination, Santayana's writings appealed to a wide
audience, and he remains to this day one of the most quoted of
twentieth century thinkers. Probably the most well-known sentence of
Santayana's is also one of the least accurately quoted: "Those who
cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it" (The Life of
Reason: Reason in Common Sense. Scribner's, 1905: 284). Scholarly
interest in Santayana today remains modest but diverse. Santayana was
a thinker of rare stature whose work deserves the highest compliment
of all: it can and may well still be read millennia from now.
1. Life
George Santayana was born on December 16, 1863 in Madrid, Spain. He
lived his first eight years in Spain, his next forty years in Boston,
and his last forty years in Europe. Accordingly, Santayana arranged
his life in his autobiography, Persons and Places, in three parts: (1)
"Background," (2) "On Both Sides of the Atlantic," and (3) "All on One
Side." The Background (1863-1886) encompassed his childhood in Ávila,
Spain, through his undergraduate years at Harvard. The second period,
during which Santayana traveled between the U.S. and Europe, covered
his Harvard years (1886-1912), both as graduate student (Ph.D. 1889)
and professor. The third period (1912-1952) was that of the retired
professor writing and traveling in Europe, and eventually adopting
Rome as his center of activity.
Santayana's birth name was Jorge Agustín Nicolás Ruiz de Santayana. At
the time of his birth Santayana's father, Agustín Ruiz de Santayana,
had only in the last few years met and married Josefina Borrás
Sturgis, the recent widow of a Boston merchant named George Sturgis.
While Agustín and Josefina united long enough to marry and produce
young Jorge (the only child of their union), the two would ultimately
part ways. Receiving financial support from her brother-in-law Robert
(George Sturgis died leaving her little), Josefina decided to move
herself and her surviving Sturgis children to Boston while for eight
years young George and his father remained in Ávila. In 1872, father
and son made the twelve-day sea voyage to Boston where Agustín briefly
attempted to settle in with his wife and her Sturgis children, and,
failing to do so, left young George with them to return to Spain in
the spring of 1873. This early uprooting and estrangement from his
father surely had a deep emotional impact on Santayana, and indeed in
his autobiography he characterizes the move as a "moral
disinheritance."
Santayana had a rich early education, spending eight years at the
Boston Latin School. He revealingly reflects on those early years (the
fall of 1874 through 1882), in his autobiography: "…I know I was
solitary and unhappy, out of humor with everything that surrounded me,
and attached only to a persistent dream-life, fed on books of fiction,
on architecture and on religion." Besides Latin, students of the
Boston Latin School studied Greek, Mathematics, History, French,
English Composition, Literature, and Rhetoric. Through this exposure
Santayana managed to develop a life-long appreciation for classical
and medieval worlds and their cultural contributions, to a great
extent preferring them to modern offerings. These appreciations would
contribute a breadth of historical perspective to Santayana's mature
philosophical works that is unrivaled by his American contemporaries.
In his early education Santayana nurtured a love of poetry and even
entertained seriously the possibility of becoming an architect.
Entering Harvard upon graduation from the Latin School in 1882,
Santayana respectively took his undergraduate and graduate degrees
(B.A., '86, Ph.D. '89), benefiting incalculably from the philosophical
mentorship of his teachers, amongst whom were two of the most famous
"golden age" Harvard philosophers: William James and Josiah Royce.
Upon successful completion of his doctorate, Santayana, by now fully
committed to the discipline, began teaching philosophy at Harvard in
the fall of 1889. He would remain there until his departure at the
zenith of academic success. In 1912 Santayana took advantage of a
modest inheritance from the death of his mother to retire from
Harvard, and left for Europe indefinitely.
As to his time in America, though he does offer the occasional fond or
sympathetic reflection, Santayana largely hated academic life and
commercialism and the dead Puritanism that he identified in his novel
The Last Puritan. Probably referring obliquely to his own eventual
feelings of exile in America, Santayana wrote: "It is natural for a
man to like to live at home, and to live long elsewhere without a
sense of exile is not good for his moral integrity" (Winds of
Doctrine, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913, pg. 6).
He left the U.S. to live an intellectually free life in Oxford, Paris,
and, after 1925, Rome. Unsuccessful in his efforts to leave Rome
before World War II, on October 14, 1941 he entered the Clinica della
Piccola Compagna di Maria, or "Convent of the Blue Nuns," a
hospital-clinic where he lived until his death in September of 1952.
He is buried in the only Spanish plot in Rome's Campo Verano Cemetery.
2. Writings
Next to Ralph Waldo Emerson, Santayana is arguably one of the best
writers in the Classical American tradition. Most philosophers tend to
read Santayana as a literary figure (which he is) rather than a
serious philosopher (which he is also), part of which has to do with
the fact that his publications strike in both directions
simultaneously: an oddity from the perspective of a public that tends
to quarantine the two areas of interest.
His philosophical works reflect two distinct periods, the early
"humanistic" period in which he composed The Sense of Beauty (1896),
Interpretations of Poetry and Religion (1900), and the five-volume The
Life of Reason (1905-6); and the later "ontological" period which
yielded Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923), and the four-volume
ontology titled Realms of Being (between 1927 and 1940).
Santayana sometimes repudiated his earlier work, in part for its
having the taint of academic life. He especially spoke down at times
about the Life of Reason series for its association with the
progressivism of the day, and it was later edited by Santayana and his
late-life personal assistant and secretary, Daniel Cory, with the
intent of removing some of its more humanistic overtones.
These authorial disparagements notwithstanding, The Life of Reason
series holds up as one of the greatest philosophical works of the
early half of the twentieth century. His peer and adversarial
contemporary John Dewey praised the series in a review of 1907 as "the
most adequate contribution America has yet made—always excepting
Emerson—to moral philosophy" (John Dewey, in John Dewey: The Middle
Works, Volume 4 [1907-1909], edited by Jo Ann Boydston, Southern
Illinois University Press, 1977: 241). The series would have a lasting
influence on naturalistic philosophy in the twentieth century.
In his budding writing career Santayana also published a volume of
poetry (an 1894 collection titled Sonnets and Other Verses).
Nevertheless his poetic muse would fade with the passing of years.
Despite in his early years attracting a near-cult following of Harvard
poets, and later maintaining the same mentorship through their Rome
pilgrimages, letters, and solicitations of feedback, Santayana's
literary exertions would be restricted to fiction and philosophy.
Early in his career at Harvard, Santayana would feel the pressure to
produce a work of philosophy. The Sense of Beauty (1896)—an exercise
in aesthetic formalism—was culled from a series of lectures he gave
between 1892 and 1893 as a newly appointed Harvard professor. The book
contains the famous definition of beauty as "pleasure regarded as a
quality of the thing." To this day The Sense of Beauty is arguably the
most widely read of Santayana's philosophical corpus. This is most
likely due to its restrictive scope in comparison to his other
philosophical works, while there has been the tendency for Santayana's
more ambitious philosophy to be neglected. This neglect probably will
subside with the ongoing MIT Press Critical Edition publications of
The Works of Santayana, edited by William G. Holzberger and Herman J.
Saatkamp, Jr.
After The Sense of Beauty, Santayana published Interpretations of
Poetry and Religion in 1900, a work which famously provoked William
James—Santayana's then-recent colleague—to characterize his philosophy
as a "perfection of rottenness." The book also provoked a key
recognition from the other of Santayana's early influential mentors,
and also dissertation advisor, Josiah Royce. Santayana relates that
Royce told him around the time of Interpretations that "the gist of
[his] philosophy [is] the separation of essence from existence"
("Apologia Pro Mente Sua" in The Library of Living Philosophers: The
Philosophy of George Santayana, edited by Paul Arthur Schilpp, New
York: Tudor Publishing, pg. 497). The ontological categories of
"essence" and "matter" would become key components of Santayana's
mature philosophy. (See section 3c.)
Besides being a poet, philosopher, and novelist, Santayana was a
hugely influential cultural critic. In a trenchant 1911 address before
the Philosophical Union in California he coined the term "genteel
tradition" and memorably provided the characterization of America as
an "old wine in new bottles." He wrote many similarly speculatively
rich essays diagnosing the cultural character of the America of his
time, some of which included penetrating philosophical criticisms of
his contemporaries and former teachers, James and Royce. These
diagnoses were early collected in the volume Character and Opinion in
the United States (1920).
None of Santayana's writings stray entirely from philosophical
considerations, including his only fictional novel. Santayana authored
a single best-selling work of fiction titled The Last Puritan,
published in 1936. He spent several of his post-Harvard years
composing the book, and many of the main characters reflect
personalities close to the author. The main theme of the novel
(co-titled: "Memoir in the Form of a Novel") is of interest for its
enhancing one's understanding of Santayana's view towards America. It
chronicles the tragic, sacrificial life of Oliver Alden, the
title-subject, a romantic and pious youth whose inner religious
sensibilities conflict with the pulsating natural life around him.
Alden is from one standpoint a sympathetic character, one with whom
the author himself admitted affinities. But from another standpoint
the protagonist represented the tragic contemporary American as
Santayana understood him—partly in reaction to troubled young poets
and artists Santayana knew from his Harvard days.
Santayana's broader cultural criticism can be found in such works as
Winds of Doctrine (1913) and the beautiful and unforced Soliloquies in
England (1922), remarkably written amidst the uncertain, violent times
of World War I. The latter is an exemplary instance—of which two
others include Dialogues in Limbo (1926) and Platonism and the
Spiritual Life (1927)—where one finds the post-Harvard Santayana
following inspirations as they come, allowing both his literary
imagination and penetrating philosophical eye to take equal share in
the interpretive task.
These shorter works undoubtedly provided opportunities of creative
release for Santayana as the ambitious project of conceiving a system
of philosophy began to assert itself. In 1923 Scepticism and Animal
Faith (hereafter SAF), the introductory text to his four-volume system
of philosophy was published. SAF is one of the few Santayana works to
have remained in print up to the present. The book introduces the
terminology and critical background of his mature ontology, itself
unfolded in four volumes over the period of thirteen years.
3. Philosophy
a. Ontology and Epiphenomenalism
Despite minor shifts in emphasis and Santayana's own attitude towards
his work, there is no radical break between the early humanistic
Santayana, and the mature, ontological one. The same persistent
distinction between ideals and natural grounds for those ideals—which
he calls in his mature ontology "essence" and "matter"—holds
throughout all of Santayana's works; and the same abiding concern for
reconciling moral with natural life remains intact.
As Royce had prophesied, an ontological distinction persisted
throughout Santayana's works: between "essence," or the infinite realm
of character embodiments that any existing thing must take on in order
to be experienced by humans, and "existence," or the groundless causal
flux of nature that underlies any form whatsoever.
In the Life of Reason Santayana emphasizes the distinction between
"perfections" or "ideals" and their "natural roots" which he sometimes
calls a "natural ground" or "basis" for all action, thought and
experience: "Every genuine ideal has a natural basis…Ideals are
legitimate, and each initially envisages a genuine and innocent good;
but they are not realizable together, nor even singly when they have
no deep roots in the world." Such ideals then are not Platonic forms,
in that they have "roots" and bear the marks of their natural origins.
Plato's forms, on the contrary, are conceived as entirely foreign to
natural origins.
But Santayana's terminological shift from talking of ideals and
natural grounds to talking of essence and matter perhaps did come at a
certain cost. Throughout the evolution of his thinking Santayana holds
to an increasing, and to many interpreters troubling, epiphenomenal
view of consciousness. Briefly, epiphenomenalism is the view that mind
is derivative, wholly caused, and has itself no causal power. Such
strong epiphenomenalism comes out in the following passage from RB:
"…the realm of matter cannot admit mind into its progressive structure
and movement; each trope or rhythm must be complete before sensation
can arise; so that this sensation is intrinsically a result and not a
cause, a comment and not an agent…" If mind and sensation appear on
the scene only as after-affects, one has to wonder how human
experience can be considered fulfilling—how more specifically it can
be anything but an ineffectual, spectator process.
There is however more than this to Santayana's view of mind and
accompanying story of human experience. To see this one needs a
further understanding of the definitive concepts of his mature
philosophy.
b. Realms and Terminology
The four realms of being Santayana identifies, in the order in which
he published each RB volume, are essence, matter, truth, and spirit.
The realms are said by Santayana to be "qualities of reality" (RB 183)
(not themselves to be confused as parts of the cosmos), that are worth
distinguishing to render human experience more fulfilling,
intelligent, and edifying.
Santayana holds that the realms are irreducibly different and are for
that reason worth distinguishing. The possibility that there are more
realms is not something he dismisses; his only condition for an
additional realm is that it be irreducibly distinct from the four he
distinguishes.
As indicated, before introducing the realms individually Santayana set
up their presentation through a penetrating and synthetic critical
introduction, published in 1923 as Scepticism and Animal Faith.
Understanding the project of SAF requires acquaintance with the
meaning of key original concepts, amongst which are: "intuition,"
"intent," "psyche," "animal faith," and "skepticism."
All belief, Santayana writes, is "a form of some faith in animal,
material existence." What Santayana calls "animal faith," is the
instinctive (if you will) and unavoidable tendency for human actions
to betray a deep belief in the existence of matter. On Santayana's
account, one cannot act without believing in matter. According to
Santayana, the denial in speech or dialectical skepticism of the
existence of matter is a solipsistic, momentary pose. So philosophers
like Descartes and Berkeley are transcendental posers, inflexibly
denying in theory what they unhesitatingly affirm in practice. Worse
yet, however: these Modern's conflate functional orientations of the
mind which Santayana respectively distinguishes as "intuition" and
"intent."
"Intuition" is for Santayana the contemplation or consciousness of an
essence (more on these shortly) apart from belief in any particular
existence. Santayana contrasts "intent" from intuition in order to
capture the process of "taking" essences as existences. When we
interact with, manipulate, engage, or otherwise encounter what we
experience as physical objects, we are imbuing essences with
intent—giving them a material existence they can never literally have.
This process of intent is governed by the preferential makeup of what
Santayana terms "psyche."
The psyche is the material set of preferences that define
individuality in organisms. The psyche is, very simply, the material
manifestation of mind and as such it is imbued with, defined by, and
stricken with belief. When one is believing, one is acting on behalf
of one's psyche. When one is intuiting essences without the addition
of belief in their existence—be it a revery, daydream, or performative
trance as in a locked moment of harmonious activity—one is communing
spiritually with the realm of essence.
This raises the issue of skepticism: if we only ever have a symbolic
grasp of material reality, and we can at any point imaginatively
"escape" such symbolic play, what's to keep us from relapsing into
Cartesian (re)pose? The first ten chapters of SAF are an exercise in
engaging Cartesianism, with the goal of pushing skepticism to its
"ultimate" limits.
As a skeptic Descartes was half-hearted according to Santayana (as
regards naturalism he also accused his contemporary John Dewey of
this), in that he thought skepticism ceased with awareness of the
self. For Santayana, nothing overcomes skepticism except pure
intuition, the irony of which is the fact that pure intuition issues
in the "discovery of essence," which is itself a bankruptcy of
knowledge (see "essence" below). So where Descartes had sought the
most indubitable knowledge, and proceeded on the principle that such a
thing could be achieved, Santayana tries to show in SAF that the
principle of indubitable knowledge is itself a paradox; when knowledge
is tested by way of a radical skepticism, and certainty is the
ultimate goal, the paradox is that certainty is achieved only at the
cost of knowledge itself. "Certainty," for Santayana, is thus a
transcendent vision of essence and as such has nothing to do with
knowledge, much less with science.
So the goal of SAF is to bankrupt Cartesianism, and in doing so to
suggest a new starting point for philosophy. That starting point is
animal faith, the tacit acceptance of material reality as the source
of understanding, knowledge, and common sense. Hence the title:
"Skepticism AND Animal Faith": we need skepticism to intellectually
clear the way for, and at the same time to lead us back to, natural
intelligence—to the realms themselves!
c. Realms Defined
Essence: The realm of essence should be understood to have a certain
primacy since it is infinite and pertains to all of the forms or
definite character embodiments that material objects and events may
take on. Essence is what Santayana defines as the most radical sense
in which anything is or has a character. Nothing—be it material
objects, objects of thought, imaginings, flights of fancy, or objects
of logical deduction—is experienced except through the mediation, or
more accurately, "im-mediation" of essences. In his inimitable way,
Santayana says of essences that they are "the only things people ever
see and the last they notice." Essences are said by Santayana to
designate the realm of internal or intrinsic relations, and awareness
of essences indicates a departure from what is called "knowledge,"
which he defines as "faith mediated by symbols." Awareness of essence
is just that: awareness; it is direct and unmediated and as such
entails no faith (belief in realities not given).
Matter: The catch however is that Santayana is a thoroughgoing
materialist, in that he holds that no form can appear to human
intuition without the previous establishment of material conditions
for that form to arise. Matter is the primordial existential flux and
is an unintelligible "surd." This does not mean, however, that matter
cannot be "known," at least provisionally. Like Spinoza's substance,
existence or matter for Santayana has no purpose, but imposes
external, natural limits to all activity. Those external limits define
human life and mark off the boundaries between human understanding and
the unfathomable depths of material existence. Santayana holds that
humans know matter only at a remove, that is, (to repeat)
symbolically. Matter is in fact referred to by Santayana as a
"metaphor" only, producing one of the more provocative aspects of his
philosophy: science is no less literary than poetry in representing
matter in that it must express its truths at a remove, through the
lens of human bias. In this sense Santayana's materialism is, to use a
contemporary term, "non-reductive." Whatever scientists keep telling
us of matter, while it is the hallmark of wisdom to defer everyday
understanding to these experts (their findings do after all indicate a
provisional advance upon previous understanding and serve contemporary
sympathies very well), it is for Santayana only spiritual
nearsightedness to deem such knowledge exhaustive of the cosmos.
Truth: As a fourth realm of being, truth wasn't conceived by Santayana
until after the first three (essence, matter and spirit) had been
distinguished, and may therefore be justly supposed to have been
introduced somewhat ad hoc. Whatever the reason, by 1913 (10 years
before the publication of SAF) Santayana had conceived truth to round
out his fourfold ontology. Truth is alleged by Santayana to be a
subset of the infinite realm of essence. The realm of truth is the
total inventory of essences instantiated by matter. The master
metaphor for truth is given by Santayana in RB as: "Truth is the
furrow which matter must plow upon the face of essence." All events
that take place entail concatenations of essences elected by matter
for appearance in the course of human life, and their objective
relations—factual arrangement, for example, that the terrorist attacks
in America in 2001 took place on September 11th rather than the
12th—introduce the possibility of truth for human understanding.
Though there are similarities, Santayana's view of truth differs in
important respects from that of Classical pragmatists: truth for
Santayana is fully objective and not necessarily presupposing of a
cognizing agent; it is the necessary condition for the possibility of
true opinions (Santayana appeals to the self-conscious act of lying as
evidence of this fact); judgments are true if and only if they
faithfully reproduce a portion of the descriptive properties of the
process of the world coming, becoming, and going away into existence.
These features of truth are guaranteed by the eternal status of the
terms of its acknowledgement: essences.
Thus the pragmatist account of truth as what "works," in the sense of
what fits the current standard comprehensive description of the world
is acceptable to Santayana so long as there is an understanding that
the terms that make truth possible, namely, essences, are eternal,
everlasting possibilities of experience that are not reducible to that
experience. This is where Santayana especially departs from the
pragmatist account of truth: it is not reducible to experience.
Spirit: Finally, Santayana distinguishes the realm of spirit, which is
neither more nor less mysterious than one's everyday understanding of
consciousness. Santayana defines consciousness as the "total inner
difference between being asleep and awake." John Lachs has
characterized Santayana's spirit as that part of a life constituted by
its series of intuitions. The native affinity of mind is, according to
Santayana, to essence and not to fact. (This is an important outcome
of his engagement with and overcoming of Cartesianism.) As such
consciousness may play with appearances apart from the believing
intent of the organic manifestation of mind (psyche); to the extent
that it does so play, the spiritual life has been lived. Spirit is the
ability of mind to turn natural events and experiences into
appearances of themselves, and in so doing allow a healthy cosmic
repose even as nature moves ceaselessly, beautifully, and sometimes
destructively along.
In this way the core contribution of Santayana's philosophy can be
seen to culminate in a reconciliation of spirit and nature, two
realities very much at odds in contemporary life. Santayana's status
as something of an "acquired taste" philosopher may plausibly be
argued to be a function of his uncommon ability to uphold two sincere
sympathies: on the one hand with Platonism and the spiritual life, and
on the other with the life of reason which includes an openness to the
advantages of three phases of moral life he called in that same-titled
volume "pre-rational morality," "rational ethics," and "post-rational
morality."
4. Naturalism in World Perspective
As should not be surprising from what has been presented, Santayana
consistently praises select philosophers and philosophies from history
for what he considers their "naturalistic piety." From the Ancient
world, Santayana was deeply impressed with Lucretius, and also what he
gleaned from Eastern Indian philosophy. Of the Modern philosophers,
Santayana reserves his highest praise for Spinoza.
Backed by these historical allies, Santayana provides in a soliloquy a
memorable (if partly irreverent) arrangement of world-philosophies:
…the progress of philosophy has not been of such a sort that the
latest philosophers are the best: it is quite the other way…the later
we come down in the history of philosophy the less important
philosophy becomes, and the less true in fundamental matters.
Suppose I arrange the works of the essential philosophers—leaving
out secondary and transitional systems—in a bookcase of four shelves;
on the top shelf (out of reach since I can't read the language) I will
place the Indians; on the next the Greek naturalists; and to remedy
the unfortunate paucity of their remains, I will add here those free
inquirers of the renaissance, leading to Spinoza, who after two
thousand years picked up the thread of scientific speculation; and
besides, all modern science: so that this shelf will run over into a
whole library of what is not ordinarily called philosophy. On the
third shelf I will put Platonism, including Aristotle, the Fathers,
the Scholastics, and all honestly Christian theology; and on the last,
modern or subjective philosophy in its entirety. I will leave lying on
the table, as of doubtful destination, the works of my contemporaries.
There is much life in some of them. I like their water-colour sketches
of self-consciousness, their rebellious egotisms, their fervid reforms
of phraseology, their peep-holes through which some very small part of
things may be seen very clearly: they have lively wits, but they seem
to me like children playing blind-man's-buff; they are keenly excited
at not knowing where they are. ("The Progress of Philosophy," in
Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies, Charles Scribner's Sons,
1922: 208-210)
Santayana recommends placing on the bottom, "inferior" shelves all the
philosophy that is published, reprinted, and discussed in universities
across the Western world today. This recommendation motivated one
critic to characterize Santayana as a "defiant eclectic" (Charles
Hartshorne, "Santayana's Defiant Eclecticism" in The Journal of
Philosophy, Vol. LXI. No. 1, 1964: 35-44), suggesting that his
thinking amounts to a high-minded circumvention of the real problems
of philosophy through the sublimation of a few eccentric doctrines.
This point is still an issue among Santayana scholars. What is clear
is that Santayana combined an indisputably rich reading of the history
of philosophy with an unparalleled synoptic critical vision.
5. Legacy
Santayana's philosophy has had a modest, unsettled legacy, one which
nevertheless surprises in its continuing ability to attract
sensibilities from across academic disciplines. While his thinking
never has, and likely never will be, given to indoctrination or
discipleship, it is clear that Santayana never conceived of these as
important and justifiably suspected that such things were bad rather
than good indications that a philosophy is worthy of the world it
struggles to understand.
Still, a glowing campfire of devotion to Santayana's work persists,
first through the institutional support of the MIT Press and the staff
of the Santayana Edition at Indiana University-Purdue University
Indianapolis (IUPUI); and second from the scholarly contributions made
to the only Santayana journal, Overheard in Seville: Bulletin of the
Santayana Society. The Bulletin is published annually and is edited by
Angus Kerr-Lawson. The Santayana Society meets annually in December at
the Eastern gathering of the American Philosophical Association and
has recently been added to the proceedings of the annual meetings of
the Society for the Advancement of American Philosophy. MIT Press is
in the process of publishing a critical edition of The Works of George
Santayana, several of which are currently released.
The future of Santayana studies, whatever their course, will depend
upon genuine interest in a non-reductive philosophical naturalism that
expresses deep respect to religious sensibilities and leads the charge
for the return to a conception of philosophy as a way of life rather
than as a critical profession with little relevance to inner
experience.
6. References and Further Reading
a. MIT Press Critical Editions
All works by George Santayana are undergoing republication as critical
editions through MIT Press, under the editorship of William G.
Holzberger and Herman J. Saatkamp, Jr., and the editorial work of
those affiliated with the Santayana Edition at Indiana
University-Purdue University Indianapolis.
* Persons and Places (1987).
* The Sense of Beauty (1988).
* Interpretations of Poetry and Religion (1990).
* The Last Puritan (1994).
* The Letters of George Santayana: Books I-VIII (2001-2008).
b. Other Santayana Works
* Animal Faith and Spiritual Life. Edited by John Lachs. New York:
Appleton-Century- Crofts, 1967.
* The Birth of Reason and Other Essays. Daniel Cory, editor. New
York and London: Columbia University Press, 1968.
* Character and Opinion in the United States. New York, Charles
Scribner's Sons: 1921.
* Dialogues in Limbo. The University of Michigan Press, 1948.
* Dominations and Powers: Reflections on Liberty, Society, and
Government. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons: 1951.
* Egotism in German Philosophy. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1940.
* Essays in Literary Criticism. Edited by Irving Singer. New York,
Charles Scribner's Sons: 1956.
* The Genteel Tradition: Nine Essays by George Santayana. Lincoln
and London: The University of Nebraska Press, 1967.
* The Idea of Christ in the Gospels. New York, Charles Scribner's
Sons: 1946.
* Life of Reason or The Phases of Human Progress, One Volume
Edition. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1955.
* Obiter Scripta. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons: 1936.
* The Philosophy of Santayana. Edited by Irwin Edman. The Modern
Library, 1936.
* Poems. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons: 1923.
* The Realms of Being. New York, Charles Scribner's Sons: 1942.
* Santayana on America: Essays, Notes, and Letters on American
Life, Literature, and Philosophy. Edited by Richard Colton Lyon. New
York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1968.
* Scepticism and Animal Faith. New York: Dover Publications, 1923, 1955.
* Soliloquies in England and Later Soliloquies. New York, Charles
Scribner's Sons: 1922.
* Some Turns of Thought in Modern Philosophy. New York, Charles
Scribner's Sons: 1933.
* Winds of Doctrine: Studies in Contemporary Opinion. New York,
Charles Scribner's Sons: 1913.
c. Books About Santayana
* Ames, Van Meter. Proust and Santayana: The Aesthetic Way of
Life. New York: Willett, Clark & Company, 1937.
* Arnett, Willard E. Santayana and the Sense of Beauty.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957.
* Butler, Richard. The Life and World of George Santayana.
Chicago: A Gateway Edition, 1960.
* Cory, Daniel. The Letters of George Santayana. New York, Charles
Scribner's Sons: 1955.
* Cory, Daniel. Santayana: The Later Years; A Portrait With
Letters. New York: George Braziller, 1963.
* Flamm, Matthew Caleb and Krzysztof Piotr Skowronski. Under Any
Sky: Contemporary Readings of George Santayana. Newcastle: Cambridge
Scholars Publishing, 2007.
* Howgate, George W. George Santayana. New York: A.S. Barnes and
Co., Inc., 1961.
* Lachs, John. On Santayana. Wadsworth, 2000.
* Lachs, John with Michael Hodges. Thinking in the Ruins:
Wittgenstein and Santayana on Contingency. Vanderbilt University
Press, 2000.
* Levinson, Henry Samuel. Santayana, Pragmatism, and the Spiritual
Life. Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press:
1992.
* Lamont, Corliss, editor. Dialogue on George Santayana. New York:
Horizon Press, 1959.
* Munson, Thomas N. The Essential Wisdom of George Santayana. New
York: Columbia University Press, 1962.
* Schilpp, Paul Arthur, editor. The Library of Living
Philosophers: The Philosophy of George Santayana. New York: Tudor
Publishing Company, 1951.
* Singer, Irving. George Santayana, Literary Philosopher. Yale
University Press, 2000.
* Sprigge, Timothy. Santayana. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.
* Woodward, Anthony. Living in the Eternal: A Study of George
Santayana. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1988.
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