of religions and a heresiographer. He was one of the pioneers in
developing a scientific approach to the study of religions.
Al-Shahrastānī' distinguished himself by his desire to describe in the
most objective way the universal religious history of humanity. He was
wrongly recognized as an "Ash'arite" theologian; this is why some
scholars such as Muhammad Ridā Jalālī Nā'īnī, Muhammad Taqī
Dānish-Pazhūh, Wilferd Madelung, Jean Jolivet, and Guy Monnot firmly
believe that he was an Ismā'īlī who was practicing taqiyya (religious
dissimulation) since Ismā'īlis were persecuted during that time. Very
few things are known about al-Shahrastānī's life. He was born in A.H.
479/ C.E. 1086 in the town of Shahristān (Republic of Turkmenistan)
where he acquired his early traditional education. Later, he was sent
to Nīshāpūr where he studied under different masters who were all
disciples of the Ash'arite theologian al-Juwaynī (d. A.H. 478 / C.E.
1085). At the age of 30, al-Shahrastānī went to Baghdad to pursue
theological studies and taught for three years at the prestigious
Ash'arite school, the Nizāmiyya. Afterwards, he returned to Persia
where he worked as Nā'ib (Deputy) of the chancellery for Sanjar, the
Saljūq ruler of Khurāsān. At the end of his life, al-Shahrastānī went
back to live in his native town.
1. The Man and His Works
During the 'Abbasid Caliphate (A.H. 132/ C.E. 750 – A.H. 656/ C.E.
1258), the golden age of Islamic literature, many schools elaborated
their major works of medieval Islamic thought. Shi'ism has
particularly influenced the destiny of Islam in the political and,
even more so, the philosophical domain. Isma'ilism belongs to the
Shi'ite mainstream of Islam. From the beginning, Islam was divided
mainly into two groups: the Sunnites and the Shi'ites. The Sunnites
believe that Prophet Muhammad did not explicitly name a Successor
after his death. The Shi'ites affirm, on the contrary, that Muhammad
explicitly designated 'Ali as the first Imam (divine Guide) and his
direct descendants as successors. According to Muslim tenets, Muhammad
was the last Prophet, the one who closed the Prophetic cycle. The
Shi'ites maintain that humanity still needs a spiritual Guide,
therefore the cycle of Prophecy must be succeeded by the cycle of
Imama. The prerogative of the Imam is to give the right interpretation
of the Qur'an and to gradually reveal its esoteric meaning.
Al-Shahrastani was certainly not an Ash'arite theologian, as has often
been argued, even if he borrows some basic concepts shared commonly by
various Muslim thinkers. Al-Shahrastani is a difficult person to
evaluate because he juggled many different philosophical and
theological vocabularies. He was a clever thinker, demonstrated by the
intricacies of many traditions and the Shi'ite notion of the Guide
found in his thoughts. Al-Shahrastani had many reasons to speak
somewhat allegorically. He was a very subtle author who often spoke
indirectly by means of symbols. He preferred his own personal
vocabulary to the traditional one. For this reason, his position is
hard to determine. It may well be that ideological considerations led
him to speak indirectly; he perhaps assumed those familiar with the
symbols would be able to unravel his elusive ideas. For all these
reasons, many scholars who have studied al-Shahrastani were misled
concerning his religious identity. (For an extensive discussion of
al-Shahrastānī's identity as Ash'arite or Ismā'īlī, cf. Steigerwald,
1997: 298-307.)
The richness and originality of al-Shahrastani's philosophical and
theological thought is manifested in his major works. The Kitab
al-Milal wa al-Nihal (The Book of Sects and Creeds), a monumental
work, presents the doctrinal points of view of all the religions and
philosophies which existed up to his time. The Nihayat al-aqdam fi
'ilm al-kalam (The End of Steps in the Science of Theology) presents
different theological discussions and shows the limits of Muslim
theology (kalam). The Majlis is a discourse, written during the mature
period of his life, delivered to a Twelver Shi'ite audience. The
Musara'at al-Falasifa (The Struggle with Philosophers) criticizes
Avicenna's doctrines by emphasizing some peculiar Isma'ili arguments
on the division of beings. The Mafatih al-Asrar wa-masabih al-abrar
(The Keys of the Mysteries and the Lamps of the Righteous) introduces
the Qur'an and gives a complete commentary of the first two chapters
of the Qur'an.
2. His Intricate Theosophy
As opposed to Ash'arites, al-Shahrastani presents a gradation in the
creation (khalq). He gives a definition of the Prophetic Impeccability
('Isma) opposed to the Ash'arite tradition, maintaining that it
subsists in the Prophet as part of his real nature. As did
al-Ghazzali, al-Shahrastani harshly criticizes Avicenna's Necessary
Being who knows the universal but not the particular. Al-Shahrastani,
particularly in the Musara'a al-Falasifa, has an Isma'ili conception
of the Originator (Mubdi') beyond Being and non-Being. He argues
convincingly for the existence of Divine Attributes, but he does not
ascribe them directly to God. True worship means Tawhid – declaring
the Unicity of God. This includes the negation of all attributes which
humans give to God, the Ultimate One who is totally transcendent. God
is Unknowable, Indefinable, Unattainable, and above human
comprehension.
As for the theory of creation, in the Nihaya, al-Shahrastani insists
that God is the only Creator and the only Agent. He also develops a
different interpretation of ex-nihilo creation which does not mean
creation out of nothing, but creation made only by God.
(al-Shahrastani, 1934: 18-9) But in the Majlis and the Mafatih
al-Asrar, the angels play a dominant role in the physical creation.
(al-Shahrastani, 1998: 82; 1989, vol. I: 109 verso line 24 to 110
recto line 1) His theory of the Divine Word (Kalima) has a convincing
Isma'ili imprint; for example, his hierarchy of angels and Divine
Words (Kalimat ) are conceived as being the causes of spiritual
beings. Al-Shahrastani in the Nihaya writes:
"that his [Divine] Command (Amr) is pre-existent and his multiple
Kalimat are eternal. By his Command, Kalimat become the manifestation
of it. Spiritual beings are the manifestation of Kalimat and bodies
are the manifestation of spiritual beings. The Ibda' (Origination
beyond time and space) and khalq (physical creation) become manifested
[respectively in] spiritual beings and bodies. As for Kalimat and
letters (huruf), they are eternal and pre-existent. Since his Command
is not similar to our command, his Kalimat and his letters are not
similar to our Kalimat . Since letters are elements of Kalimat which
are the causes of spiritual beings who govern corporeal beings; all
existence subsists in the Kalimat Allah preserved in his Command."
(al-Shahrastani, 1934: 316)
In the Majlis, al-Shahrastani divides the creation into two worlds:
the spiritual world (i.e. the world of the Origination of spirits
(Ibda'-i arwah)) in an achieved (mafrugh) state) and the world of
physical creation (khalq) in becoming (musta'naf). He shares an
Isma'ili cosmology in which God has built his religion in the image of
creation.
The conception of Prophecy developed in the Nihaya is closer to that
of Isma'ilis and Falasifa (Islamic philosophers) than to Ash'arites,
because al-Shahrastani establishes a logical link between miracles and
Prophetic Impeccability ('Isma). For al-Shahrastani, the proof of
veracity (sidq) of the Prophet is intrinsic to his nature and is
related to his Impeccability. (Al-Shahrastani, 1934: 444-5) He
develops the concept of cyclical time explicitly in the Milal, the
Majlis, and the Mafatih and implicitly in the Nihaya. In the Majlis,
his understanding of the dynamic evolution of humanity is similar to
Isma'ilism, in which each Prophet opens a new cycle. Al-Shahrastani
recovers the mythical Qur'anic story of Moses and the Servant of God
inspired by Al-Risala al-Mudhhiba of al-qadi al-Nu'man (d. A.H. 363 /
C.E. 974).
Al-Shahrastani was an able and learned man of great personal charm.
The real nature of his thought is best referred to by the term
theosophy, in the older sense of "divine wisdom". However,
al-Shahrastani was certainly not totally against theology or
philosophy, even if he was very harsh against the theologians and the
philosophers. As he explained in the Majlis, in order to remain on the
right path, one must preserve a perfect equilibrium between intellect
('aql) and audition (sam'). A philosopher or a theologian must use his
intellect until he reaches the rational limit. Beyond this limit, he
must listen to the teaching of Prophets and Imams.
His works reflect a complex interweaving of intellectual strands, and
his thought is a synthesis of this fruitful historical period. In his
conception of God, Creation, Prophecy, and Imama, al Shahrastani
adopted many doctrinal elements that are reconcilable with Nizari
Isma'ilism. The necessity of a Guide, belonging both to the spiritual
and the physical world, is primordial in his scheme since the Imam is
manifested in this physical world.
3. References and Further
* Danish-Pazhuh, Muhammad Taqi
* 1346HS/1968 "Da'i al-du'at Taj al-din-i Shahrastana." Nama-yi
astan-i quds 7: 77-80
* 1347HS/1969 "Da'i al-du'at Taj al-din-i Shahrastana." Nama-yi
astan-i quds 8: 61-71.
* Gimaret, Daniel, Monnot, Guy and Jolivet, Jean
* 1986-1993 Livre des religions et des sectes. 2 vols. Belgium
(Peeters): UNESCO.
* Jolivet, Jean
* 2000 "AL-SHAHRASTÂNÎ critique d'Avicenne Dans la Lutte contre
les philosophes (quelques aspects)," Arabic Sciences and Philosophy,
10: 275-292.
* Madelung, Wilferd
* 1976 "Ash-Shahrastanis Streitschrift gegen Avicenna und ihre
Widerlegung durch Nasir ad-din at.-Tusi." Akten des VII. Kongresses
für Arabistik und Islamwissenschaft, Abhandlungen der Akademie des
Wissenschaften in Göttingen 98: 250-9.
* Monnot, Guy
* 1983-84 "Islam: exégèse coranique." Annuaire de l'École Pratique
des Hautes Études 92: 305-15.
* 1986-1987 "Islam: exégèse coranique." Annuaire de l'École
Pratique des Hautes Études 95: 253-59.
* 1987-1988 "Islam: exégèse coranique." Annuaire de l'École
Pratique des Hautes Études 96: 237-43.
* 1996 "Shahrastani." Encyclopédie de l'islam 9: 220-22.
* 1999 Book review of La pensée philosophique et théologique de
Shahrastani (m. 548/1153) by Diane Steigerwald in Bulletin critique
des annales islamologiques 15: 79-81.
* 2001 Book review of Majlis-i maktub-i Shahrastani-i mun'aqid dar
Khwarazm. Ed. Muhammad Rida R. Jalali Na'ini and translated into
French by Diane Steigerwald in Majlis: Discours sur l'ordre et la
création. Sainte-Foy (Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval in
Bulletin critique des annales islamologiques 17.
* Na'ini, Jalali
* 1343HS/1964 Sharh-i Hal wa Athar-i Hujjat al-Haqq Abu al-Fath
Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Karim b. Ahmad Shahrastani. Tehran.
* al-Nu'man, Abu Hanifa
* 1956 Al-Risala al-Mudhhiba. In Khams Rasa'il Isma'iliyya. Ed.
'Arif Tamir, Beirut.
* Al-Shahrastani, Abu al-Fath Ibn 'Abd al-Karim
* 1850 Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal. Trans. Theodor Haarbrücker in
Religionspartheien und Philosophen-Schulen. Vol. 1 Halles.
* 1923 Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal. Ed. William Cureton in Books of
Religions and Philosophical Sects. 2 vols. Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz
(reprint of the edition of London 1846).
* 1934 Nihayat al-Aqdam fi 'Ilm al-Kalam. Ed. and partially trans.
Alfred Guillaume in The Summa Philosophiae of Shahrastani. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
* 1366-1375/1947-1955 Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal. Ed. Muhammad
Fath Allah Badran, 2 vols. Cairo.
* 1396/1976 Musara'at al-Falasifa. Ed. Suhayr M. Mukhtar. Cairo.
* 1989 Mafatih al-Asrar wa-masabih al-abrar. Tehran.
* 1998 Majlis-i maktub-i Shahrastani-i mun'aqid dar Khwarazm. Ed.
Muhammad Rida R. Jalali Na'ini and translated into French by Diane
Steigerwald in Majlis: Discours sur l'ordre et la création. Sainte-Foy
(Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval.
* 2001 Musara'at al-Falasifa. Ed. and translated by Wilferd
Madelung and Toby Mayer in Struggling with the Philosopher: A
Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics. London: I.B. Tauris.
* Steigerwald, Diana
* 1995 "L'Ordre (Amr) et la création (khalq) chez Shahrastani."
Folia Orientalia 31: 163-75.
* 1996 "The Divine Word (Kalima) in Shahrastani's Majlis." Studies
in Religion/Sciences religieuses 25.3: 335-52.
* 1997 La pensée philosophique et théologique de Shahrastani (m.
548/1153). Sainte-Foy (Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval.
* 1998 "La dissimulation (taqiyya) de la foi dans le shi'isme
ismaélien." Studies in Religion/Sciences religieusesz, 27.1: 39-59.
* 2001 Book review of al-Shahrastani, Kitab al-Musâra'at
al-Falasifa (Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of
Avicenna's Metaphysics), edited and translated by Wilferd Madelung and
Toby Mayer, London, Tauris, 2001 in Studies in Religion/Sciences
religieuses 30.2: 233-234.
* 2004 "The Contribution of al-Shahrastani to Islamic Medieval
Thought." In Reason and Inspiration: Islamic Studies in Honor of
Hermann A. Landolt. London: I.B. Tauris, (forthcoming).
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