that claim a Socratic lineage. To call the Cynics a "school" though,
immediately raises a difficulty for so unconventional and
anti-theoretical a group. Their primary interests are ethical, but
they conceive of ethics more as a way of living than as a doctrine in
need of explication. As such askēsis—a Greek word meaning a kind of
training of the self or practice—is fundamental. The Cynics, as well
as the Stoics who followed them, characterize the Cynic way of life as
a "shortcut to virtue" (see Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent
Philosophers, Book 6, Chapter 104 and Book 7, Chapter 122). Though
they often suggest that they have discovered the quickest, and perhaps
surest, path to the virtuous life, they recognize the difficulty of
this route.
The colorfulness of the Cynic way of life presents certain problems.
The triumph of the Cynic as a philosophical and literary character
complicates discussions of the historical individuals, a complication
further troubled by a lack of sources. The evidence regarding the
Cynics is limited to apothegms, aphorisms, and ancient hearsay; none
of the many Cynic texts have survived. The tradition records the
tenets of Cynicism via their lives. It is through their practices, the
selves and lives that they cultivated, that we come to know the
particular Cynic ēthos.
1. History of the Name
The origin of the Cynic name kunikos, a Greek word meaning "dog-like",
is a point of contention. Two competing stories explain the source of
the name using the figure of Antisthenes (who Diogenes Laertius
identifies controversially as the original Cynic), and yet a third
explanation uses the figure of Diogenes of Sinope. First, Antisthenes
is said to have taught in the Cynosarges, which is a Greek word that
might mean "White Dog," "Quick Dog," or even "Dog's Meat". The
Cynosarges is a gymnasium and temple for Athenian nothoi. "Nothoi" is
a term that designates one who is without Athenian citizenship because
of being born to a slave, foreigner, or prostitute; one can also be
nothoi if one's parents were citizens but not legally married.
According to the first explanation, the term Cynic would, then, derive
from the place in which the movement's founder worshipped, exercised,
and, most importantly, lectured. Such a derivation is suspect insofar
as later writers could have created the story through an analogy to
the way in which the term "Stoic" came from the Stoa Poikilē in which
Zeno of Citium taught. Though nothing unquestionably links Antisthenes
or any other Cynic to the Cynosarges, Antisthenes was a nothos and the
temple was used for worshipping Hercules, the ultimate Cynic hero.
A second possible derivation comes from Antisthenes' alleged nickname
Haplokuōn, a word that probably means a dog "pure and simple", and is
presumably referring to his way of living. Though Antisthenes was
known for a certain rudeness and crudeness that could have led to such
a name, and later authors, including Aelian, Epictetus, and Stobaeus,
identify him as a kuōn, or dog, his contemporaries, such as Plato and
Xenophon, do not label him as such. This lack lends some credence to
the notion that the term kunikos was applied to Antisthenes
posthumously, and only after Diogenes of Sinope, a more illustrious
philosopher-dog, had arrived on the scene.
If Antisthenes was not the first Cynic by name, then the origin of the
appellation falls to Diogenes of Sinope, an individual well known for
dog-like behavior. As such, the term may have begun as an insult
referring to Diogenes' style of life, especially his proclivity to
perform all of his activities in public. Shamelessness, which allowed
Diogenes to use any space for any purpose, was primary in the
invention of "Diogenes the Dog."
The precise source of the term "Cynic" is, however, less important
than the wholehearted appropriation of it. The first Cynics, beginning
most clearly with Diogenes of Sinope, embraced their title: they
barked at those who displeased them, spurned Athenian etiquette, and
lived from nature. In other words, what may have originated as a
disparaging label became the designation of a philosophical vocation.
Finally, because Cynicism denotes a way of living, it is inaccurate to
equate Cynicism with the other schools of its day. The Cynics had no
set space where they met and discoursed, such as the Garden, the
Lyceum, or the Academy; for Diogenes and Crates, the streets of Athens
provide the setting for both their teaching and their training.
Moreover, the Cynics neglect, and very often ridicule, speculative
philosophy. They are especially harsh critics of dogmatic thought,
theories they consider useless, and metaphysical essences.
2. Major Figures and the Cynic Lineage
The major figures within Cynicism form the pivotal points within a
lineage traced from Antisthenes, Socrates' companion and a major
interlocutor in the Socratic dialogues of Xenophon (see especially his
Memorabilia and Symposium), through his student, Diogenes of Sinope,
to Diogenes' pupil Crates, and from Crates to both Hipparchia of
Maronea, the first known woman Cynic philosopher, and Zeno of Citium,
the founder of Stoicism.
Some others among the more notable Cynics include Metrocles of
Maronea, brother to Hipparchia and pupil of Crates, Menippus, Demonax
of Cyprus, Bion of Borysthenes, and Teles. Thinkers heavily influenced
by Cynic thought include Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes of Assos, Aristo of
Chios, Musonius Rufus, Epictetus, Dio Chrysostom, and the emperor
Julian.
The Socratic schools tend to trace their lineage directly back to
Socrates and the Cynics are no exception. As such, the historical
authenticity of this heredity is suspect. Nevertheless, it accurately
tracks a kind of intellectual transmission that begins with
Antisthenes and is passed on to Diogenes, Crates, and Zeno. Cynics
seem to have survived into the third century CE; two of Julian's
orations from 361 CE disparage the Cynics of his day for lacking the
asceticism and hardiness of "real" Cynics. As a "school" of thought,
Cynicism ends in the sixth century CE, but its legacy continues in
both philosophy and literature.
3. Cynic Ethics
Foremost for understanding the Cynic conception of ethics is that
virtue is a life lived in accord with nature. Nature offers the
clearest indication of how to live the good life, which is
characterized by reason, self-sufficiency, and freedom. Social
conventions, however, can hinder the good life by compromising freedom
and setting up a code of conduct that is opposed to nature and reason.
Conventions are not inherently bad; however, for the Cynic,
conventions are often absurd and worthy of ridicule. The Cynics deride
the attention paid to the Olympics, the "big thieves" who run the
temples and are seen carrying away the "little thieves" who steal from
them, politicians as well as the philosophers who attend their courts,
fashion, and prayers for such things as fame and fortune.
Only once one has freed oneself from the strictures that impede an
ethical life can one be said to be truly free. As such, the Cynics
advocate askēsis, or practice, over theory as the means to free
oneself from convention, promote self-sufficiency, and live in accord
with nature. Such askēsis leads the Cynic to live in poverty, embrace
hardship and toil, and permits the Cynic to speak freely about the
silly, and often vicious, way life is lived by his or her
contemporaries. The Cynics consistently undermine the most hallowed
principles of Athenian culture, but they do so for the sake of
replacing them with those in accord with reason, nature, and virtue.
a. Living in Accord with Nature and Opposing Conventions
Though the imperative to live life in accord with nature is rightly
associated with Stoicism, the Stoics are following a Cynic lead.
Diogenes of Sinope fervently rejects nomos, or convention, by showing
the arbitrary and frequently amusing nature of Athenian social,
religious, and political mores and trampling the authority of
religious and political leaders. Fundamental to this is a redefinition
of what is worthy of shame. Diogenes' body is disorderly, a source of
great shame among the Athenians and the reservoir for the principle of
shamelessness among the Cynics.
Diogenes uses his body to upend the conventional association of
decorum with the good. He breaks etiquette by publicly carrying out
activities an Athenian would typically perform in private. For
example, he eats, drinks, and masturbates in the marketplace, and
ridicules the shame felt when one's body is unruly or clumsy. This
does not mean, however, that there is nothing about which a person
ought to feel shame. For example, in Lives of Emminent Philosophers,
one finds the following anecdote: "Observing a fool tuning a harp,
'Are you not ashamed,' he said, 'to give this wood concordant sounds,
while you fail to harmonize your soul with your life?' To one who
protested 'I am unfit to study philosophy,' Diogenes said, 'Why then
live, if you do not care to live well?'" (Diogenes Laertius, Book 6,
Chapter 65; R.D. Hicks' translation is altered for this article.)
As Diogenes ' reappraisal of shame suggests, the Cynics are not
relativists. Nature replaces convention as the standard for judgment.
The Cynics believe that it is through nature that one can live well
and not through conventional means such as etiquette or religion. One
reads that Diogenes of Sinope "would rebuke men in general with regard
to their prayers, declaring that they asked for things which seemed to
them to be good, not for such as are truly good" (Diogenes Laertius,
Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book 6, Chapter 43). This captures the
crux of the Cynic notion of living in accord with nature and contrary
to convention. Praying for wealth, fame, or any of the other trappings
convention leads one to believe are good is a mistaken enterprise.
Life, as given by nature, is full of hints as to how to live it best;
but humans go astray, ashamed by petty things and striving after
objects, which are unimportant. Consequently, their freedom is
hindered by convention.
i. Freedom and Parrhēsia
The Cynics clearly privilege freedom, but not merely in a personal
sense as a kind of negative liberty. Instead, freedom is advocated in
three related forms: eleutheria, freedom or liberty, autarkeia,
self-sufficiency, and parrhēsia, freedom of speech or frankness. Their
conception of freedom has some shared aspects with other ancient
schools; the notion of autonomy which derives from the imperative that
reason rule over the passions is found in the ethics of multiple
Classical and Hellenistic thinkers. A specifically Cynic sense of
freedom, though, is evident in parrhēsia.
An element of parrhēsia, which can be overlooked when it is defined as
free or frank speech, is the risk that accompanies speaking so freely
and frankly. Legendary examples of the Cynic's fearlessly free speech
occur in Diogenes of Sinope's interchanges with Alexander the Great.
One such example is the following: "When he was sunning himself in the
Craneum, Alexander came and stood over him and said, 'Ask of me any
boon you like.' To which he replied, 'Stand out of my light'"
(Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book 6, Chapter
28). At another point, Alexander pronounces his rank to Diogenes of
Sinope by saying, "I am Alexander the Great King." Diogenes responds
with his own rank, "I am Diogenes the Cynic," which is to say
"Diogenes the Dog" (Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers,
Book 6, Chapter 60).
The examples above demonstrate the unique confluence of humor,
fearless truth telling, and political subversion which distinguishes
the Cynic way of living. With a few notable exceptions, the
philosophers of antiquity can be found at some time or another in the
company of rulers (Plato, Aeschines, and Aristippus all attended the
court of Dionysius, Xenophon is intimately associated with Cyrus,
Aristotle with the Macedonian ruling family, and so on). The Cynics,
however, made it a point to shun such contact. The Cynics strive for
self-sufficiency and strength, neither of which is capable of being
maintained once one enters into the conventional political game. The
life of an impoverished, but virtuous and self-sufficient philosopher
is preferable to the life of a pampered court philosopher.
Diogenes Laertius writes that, "Plato saw [Diogenes of Sinope] washing
lettuces, came up to him and quietly said to him, 'Had you paid court
to Dionysius, you wouldn't now be washing lettuces,' and [Diogenes]
with equal calmness answered, 'If you had washed lettuces, you
wouldn't have paid court to Dionysius'" (Lives of Eminent
Philosophers, Book 6, Chapter 58). The lesson of this exchange is
clear: whereas Plato views paying court as freeing one from poverty,
the Cynic sees poverty as freeing one from having to pay court to a
ruler. This second sense of freedom so forcefully advocated by the
Cynics, comprises both autarkeia, or self-sufficiency, and parrhēsia,
or the freedom to speak the truth: something one at court is never
free to do. It is no surprise, then, that when asked what is "the most
beautiful thing in the world," Diogenes replied, "Parrhēsia."
(Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book 6, Chapter
69.)
ii. Training and Toughness
In order to live the Cynic life, one had to be inured to the various
physical hardships entailed by such freedom. This required, then, a
life of constant training, or askēsis. The term askēsis, defined above
as a kind of training of the self but which also means "exercise" or
"practice," is appropriated from athletic training. Instead of
training the body for the sake of victory in the Olympic Games, on the
battlefield, or for general good health, the Cynic trains the body for
the sake of the soul.
The examples of Cynic training are multiple: Antisthenes praised toil
and hardship as goods; Diogenes of Sinope walked barefoot in the snow,
hugged cold statues, and rolled about in the scalding summer sand in
his pithos; Crates rid himself of his considerable wealth in order to
become a Cynic. The ability to live without any of the commodities
usually mistaken for necessities is liberating and beneficial. It is
also, however, a difficult lesson: "[Diogenes of Sinope] used to say
that he followed the example of the trainers of choruses; for they too
set the note a little high, to ensure that the rest should hit the
right note" (Diogenes Laertius, Book 6, Chapter 35).
4. Cosmopolitanism
The Cynics are not always given credit when it comes to the notion of
cosmopolitanism, for the origin of this term is at times ascribed to
Stoicism. Moreover, when it is attributed to Cynicism, it is often
characterized as a negative tenet that gains content only once it is
transplanted into Stoic doctrine (see John L. Moles' discussion of
"Cynic Cosmopolitanism" in The Cynics). However, cosmopolitanism can
be fully understood within its Cynic context if it is taken as more
than an oxymoron or a pithy retort: "Asked where he came from,
[Diogenes of Sinope] said, 'I am a citizen of the world
[kosmopolitēs]'" (Diogenes Laertius, Book 6, Chapter 63). In this last
quote, Diogenes is responding to a question calling for him to state
his origin with what seems to be a neologism. To be a politēs is to
belong to a polis, to be a member of a specific society with all of
the benefits and commitments such membership entails. By not
responding with the expected "Sinope," Diogenes is renouncing his duty
to Sinopeans as well as his right to be aided by them. It is important
to note that Diogenes does not say that he is apolis, that is, without
a polis; he claims allegiance to the kosmos, or the universe.
The Cynics, then, cast the notion of citizenship in a new light. To
the Greek male of the Classical and Hellenistic period, citizenship
was of utmost value. The restrictions on citizenship made it a
privilege and these exclusions are, to the Cynic, absurd. Under
cosmopolitanism, the Cynic challenges the civic affiliation of the few
by opening the privilege to all. General national affiliation was
likewise esteemed, and Diogenes' cosmopolitan response is therefore
also a rejection of the limitations of such a view.
Finally, cosmopolitanism revises the traditional conception of the
political duties of an individual. As such, the Cynic is freed to live
according to nature and not according to the laws and conventions of
the polis. The conventional polis is not just rejected but replaced.
This has important ethical connections to the notion of living in
accord with nature, and can likewise be seen as an important precursor
to the Stoic understanding of physis, or nature, as identical to the
kosmos, or universe.
5. The Cynic Legacy
The first and most direct Cynic influence is upon the founding of
Stoicism. One story, preserved in Diogenes Laertius, tells of Zeno of
Citium reading a copy of Xenophon's Memorabilia in a bookshop while
shipwrecked in Athens. He became so taken with the figure of Socrates
that he asked the bookseller where he might find such a man. At just
that moment, Crates passed by, and the bookseller pointed him out as
the one to follow.
Though this, like many of Diogenes Laertius' stories, may strike one
as too propitious to be historically accurate, it preserves the way in
which the primary tenets of Stoicism emerge out of Cynicism. The
primacy of ethics, the sufficiency of virtue for happiness, the
cultivation of indifference to external affairs, the definition of
virtue as living in accord with nature, and the importance placed on
askēsis, all mark the shared terrain between the Cynics and the
Stoics. Indeed, when various Stoic thinkers list the handful of Stoic
sages, Cynics, and especially Diogenes of Sinope, are typically among
them. Epictetus in particular advocates the Cynic stance, but warns
against taking up lightly something so difficult (see Discourses
3.22).
Within political philosophy, the Cynics can be seen as originators of
anarchism. Since humans are both rational and able to be guided by
nature, it follows that humans have little need for legal codes or
political affiliations. Indeed, political associations at times
require one to be vicious for the sake of the polis. Diogenes'
cosmopolitanism represents, then, a first suggestion that human
affiliation ought to be to humanity rather than a single state.
The impact of Cynicism is also felt in Christian, Medieval, and
Renaissance thought, though not without a good deal of ambivalence.
Christian authors, for example, praise the Cynics for their
self-discipline, independence, and mendicant lifestyle, but rebuke the
bawdy aspects of Cynic shamelessness.
Finally, the mark of the Cynic is found throughout the texts of
literature and philosophy. Menippean Satire has a clear debt, and
Diogenes of Sinope in particular appears as a character in literary
and philosophical contexts; Dante, for example, situates Diogenes with
other virtuous but pagan philosophers in the first level of hell and
Nietzsche is especially fond of both Diogenes and the Cynic attitude.
One striking example occurs in section 125 of The Gay Science. Here
Nietzsche alludes to the anecdote wherein Diogenes searches for a
human being with a lit lamp in daylight (D.L. 6.41). In his own
rendition, Nietzsche tells the story of the madman who entered the
marketplace with a lit lamp on a bright morning seeking God. It is
this same madman who pronounces that God is dead.
6. References and Further Reading
Billerbeck, Margarethe. Die Kyniker in der modernen Forschung.
Amsterdam: B.R. Grüner, 1991.
Branham, Bracht and Marie-Odile Goulet-Cazé, eds. The Cynics: The
Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1996.
Dudley, D. R. A History of Cynicism from Diogenes to the 6th Century
A.D. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1937.
Epictetus. The Discourses as Reported by Arrian. Trans. W.A.
Oldfather. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1928.
Goulet-Cazé, Marie-Odile. L'Ascèse cynique: Un commentaire de Diogène
Laërce VI 70-71, Deuxième édition. Paris: Libraire Philosophique J.
VRIN, 2001.
Goulet-Cazé, Marie-Odile and Richard Goulet, eds.Le Cynisme ancien et
ses prolongements. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1993.
Hock, R.F. "Simon the Shoemaker as an Ideal Cynic," in Greek, Roman
and Byzantine Studies, 17 (1976).
Diogenes Laertius. Lives of Eminent Philosophers Vol. I-II. Trans.
R.D. Hicks. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979.
Long, A.A. and David N. Sedley, eds. The Hellenistic Philosophers,
Volume 1 andVolume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Malherbe, Abraham J., ed. and trans. The Cynic Epistles. Missoula,
Montana: Scholars Press, 1977.
Navia, Luis E. Diogenes of Sinope: The Man in the Tub. Westport,
Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Navia, Luis E. Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Westport,
Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996.
Navia, Luis E. Antisthenes of Athens. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood
Press, 2001.
Paquet, Léonce. Les Cyniques grecs: fragments et témoignages. Ottawa:
Presses de l'Universitaire d'Ottawa, 1988.
Sloterdijk, Peter. Critique of Cynical Reason. Trans. Michael Eldred.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987
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